Best Preserved Ancient Cities: Timeless Walled Cities
Precisely built to be the last line of protection for historic cities and their people, massive stone walls are silent sentinels from a bygone age.…
Vietnam stretches along 1 650 km (1 025 mi) of the eastern Indochina peninsula, a slender S‑shaped nation spanning a vast range of climates, landscapes, and cultures. From the humid subtropical highlands of the North, where snow occasionally dusts Fansipan (3 143 m elevation), to the tropical Mekong Delta in the South, no two regions are the same. Its 331 210 km² (127 880 sq mi) area contains everything from towering limestone karsts at Hạ Long Bay to verdant river deltas, arid central plateaus, and coastal mangroves. This astonishing geographic diversity is matched by cultural variety: Vietnam’s 100‑million people include 54 official ethnic groups, each with its own language, dress and traditions. Decades of history – from ancient Cham and Khmer kingdoms to Chinese and French rule, to the colonial and postwar era – have left a layered imprint on the land and its people. “At every step”, travelers note, one encounters a different facet of Vietnam’s tapestry.
The misty limestone peaks of Hạ Long Bay (Quảng Ninh Province) rise like emerald sentinels from the Gulf of Tonkin. Carved by eons of wind and water, the bay’s 1 969 islands and islets draped in tropical vegetation form a UNESCO World Heritage natural site. In folklore, dragons descended to create this breathtaking seascape – a testament to the blend of myth and nature that pervades Vietnamese landscapes. But the bay is just one of many national treasures. Farther south lie the dark jungles and grottoes of Phong Nha–Kẻ Bàng National Park (Quảng Bình Province), another UNESCO site famous for Son Đoòng – the world’s largest cave passageway. Between these extremes are emerald rice terraces, tea plantations, pine‐forested hills, and the coconut‐fringed coastlines of the Mekong Delta. This variety of settings – from sea level to above 3 000 m – makes Vietnam one of the world’s great ecological hotspots.
Vietnam’s size and shape account for much of its diversity. The country spans from the Red River Delta near China in the north, down to the Mekong Delta (known as “Western Rivers”) at the Cambodian border in the south. By road or rail it is about 1 650 km (1 025 mi) from Lạng Sơn on the Chinese frontier to Hà Tiên at Vietnam’s southwestern tip. The narrowest width is barely 50 km (31 mi) across near Đồng Hới in Quảng Bình Province. In all, Vietnam’s land borders total roughly 4 550 km, abutting China, Laos and Cambodia. A coastline of about 3 260 km (2 025 mi) runs from the Red River estuary in the north to Cà Mau Cape in the south, edging on the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand. Along this coast are dense mangrove swamps (notably the Cần Giờ and Tràm Chim wetlands) and some 2 800 offshore islets – including the contested Hoàng Sa (Paracel) and Trường Sa (Spratly) archipelagos.
Vietnam’s topography is dominated by mountains and hills. Roughly three‑quarters of the country’s surface is highlands (hills or mountains) – the spine of Vietnam running down the length of the nation. The Hồng (Red River) valley and Đồng bằng Sông Cửu Long (Mekong Delta) account for only about 25% of the land, yet these fertile deltas host most of the population and rice paddies. In the far North, the rugged Hoàng Liên Sơn range cradles Fansipan (3 143 m), often called “Indochina’s Roof”. Central Vietnam is flanked by the Trường Sơn (Annamite) mountains – highlands that also mark the Laos border and form the watershed for many rivers. Across these heights, roads climb steep passes like Hải Vân and Khau Phạ, where pine forests and waterfalls betray a cooler climate. In contrast, the coastal plains – narrow in the North but broader in the Central and Southern regions – lie low and flat. These plains, of red riverine soil, yield abundant crops but are prone to floods during the monsoon.
Vietnam’s climate is equally varied. It straddles the tropical monsoon zone, but geography divides the country into multiple climate regions. North Vietnam (above the Hải Vân Pass) has four distinct seasons: a cool, damp winter and a hot, wet summer. Northeast winter monsoons bring chilly, drizzly weather (sometimes down to 5–10 °C in January), while summer rains fall June–August. By contrast, South Vietnam (below Đà Nẵng and the Central Highlands) has only two main seasons: a long rainy season (May–November) driven by the southwest monsoon, and a dry season (December–April) influenced by northeasterly trade winds. The South’s tropical climate means year‑round warmth (average ~25–27 °C) and high humidity. Rainfall varies widely: the plains and deltas may see 1 200–1 500 mm annually, while the highlands catch 2 000–3 000 mm. Typhoons (tropical cyclones) also sweep in from the South China Sea in late summer, especially affecting the central and northern coasts. Overall, Vietnam’s mean humidity hovers near 84% and sunshine ranges 1 500–3 000 hours per year, higher in the dry season. Notably, average temperatures have been rising – by roughly 0.5 °C over the past 50 years – making climate resilience an urgent concern.
The interplay of topography and climate fosters remarkable biodiversity. Vietnam lies within both the Indomalayan and Australasian ecozones, hosting tropical rainforests in the central highlands and mountains, monsoon forests in the north, and extensive mangroves along the deltas. As of 2005 it was ranked 16th globally for biodiversity, harboring roughly 16% of the world’s species in a land mass of only ~0.3% of the Earth’s surface. It remains one of the 25 “megadiversity” nations. Surveys to date have catalogued over 11 400 species of vascular plants, along with 1 030 mosses. The fauna includes some 322 mammals (from tigers and langurs to the newly discovered saola in 1992) and hundreds of bird species. Reptiles (397 species) and amphibians (181) abound in the forests, while the rivers hold roughly 700 freshwater fish species. The surrounding seas yield over 2 400 marine fish types. However, rapid habitat loss and poaching have pushed many species to the brink: conservationists report that about 10% of Vietnam’s wildlife are now endangered, and several — like the Javan rhinoceros in Cát Tiên National Park — are already extinct (last seen in 2010). The country has protected about 126 designated areas (including 28 national parks), and established several UNESCO Biosphere Reserves (Xuan Thuy, Cat Ba, Con Dao, Red River Delta, among others) to safeguard its ecological wealth.
Vietnam’s human fabric is as diverse as its landscapes. Officially, the state recognizes 54 ethnic groups. The Kinh (Viet) ethnicity – speakers of modern Vietnamese (Quốc Ngữ) – comprise the vast majority (~86–87%). Kinh people are concentrated in the lowland deltas (the Red River Delta in the north, the central coastal plain, and the Mekong Delta in the south) and in cities such as Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. The remaining 53 groups, totaling about 8 million people, are often called “ethnic minorities” and live mainly in the hills and mountains (roughly two-thirds of Vietnam’s land area) from north to south. These groups belong to several language families: Austroasiatic (Viet-Muong and Mon-Khmer branches), Tai-Kadai, Hmong-Mien, and even remnants of Austronesian (Chamic) languages. Many minority cultures preserved animist and shamanic traditions long predating large-scale Vietnamese statehood.
Major ethnic minorities include the Tày and Thái, each numbering ~1.9% of the population, mainly in the northern mountains; the Mường (1.5%) in the Northwest; the Hoa (1.4%), ethnic Chinese often in cities; and the Khmer Krom (1.4%) in the southern Mekong region. Others of significant size are the Nùng, H’mông (Mèo), Dao, Gia Rai, Ê-đê, and the Chăm of Central Vietnam. Each group has its own language, dress, folklore and festivals. For example, the H’mông (Northwestern Vietnam) are famed for indigo-dyed tunics and elaborate cross-stitched patterns; the Red Dao (in Lào Cai and Yên Bái) are known for their triangular red turbans and silver jewelry; the Tay (northern river valleys) wear simple dark indigo jackets with silver neck-rings; the Ede (Central Highlands) build longhouses on stilts and play distinctive gongs; the Cham retain brick temples and sun-worshipping traditions in Ninh Thuận/Khánh Hòa. Through seasonal gatherings and markets (e.g. Sapa, Đồng Văn Plateau, or the North‑Central Highlands) these cultures meet and mingle, selling hemp textiles, handicrafts, and local wares that enthrall visitors.
Vietnam’s ethnic tapestry is vividly expressed in traditional dress and textiles. In the terraced mountain villages of Hà Giang and Sapa, H’mông and Dao women wear brightly embroidered jackets and elaborate headdresses. This Red Dao woman (Yên Bái Province) wears a triangular crimson headdress and silver ornaments – her outfit hand‐dyed with indigo and hand-stitched, reflecting motifs of family life and nature. Each hill tribe group has its own signature costume – woven on backstrap looms from hemp or cotton, then stamped and handwoven. Though often made for everyday use, these garments are so skillfully crafted that some compare local markets to the world’s most authentic fashion shows.
Ethnic minorities tend to live in tight-knit villages. Their houses might be on stilts (common among the Tay, Thai, Muong) or low thatch-roofed dwellings (as among central highlanders). In many villages a communal house (nhà rông or nhà dài) or a sacred grove serves as a social center. Traditional beliefs run the gamut from animism and ancestor worship to syncretic Buddhism. The government notes that many minority groups practice distinct rituals – offering buffalo to the heavens, using gong music and legends that rival the epics of China and India. To strengthen unity, Vietnam celebrates an annual National Ethnic Culture and Tourism Festival (often in Hanoi) where representatives of all 54 groups parade in costume and perform folk arts. The bản sắc (identity) of each group is officially preserved: schools teach minority languages, and projects document their histories and music.
The Languages of Vietnam mirror its diversity. Vietnamese (a tonal Mon-Khmer language written in Latin script) is official. But many households speak other tongues: various Mường, Thổ, Chứt (Viet-Muong branch); Thái, Tày, Nùng (Tai branches); H’mông, Dao (Miao-Yao); Khmer (Kampuchean); and Cham (Chamic/Austronesian). Overlaid on these are growing use of English (especially in education and business) and legacies of French in architecture and cuisine. Thus a street scene in Saigon or Hà Nội might feature a French-style café sign alongside Vietnamese, or a shop attendant conversing in Mandarin. According to official data, roughly 87% of Vietnamese identify as Viet (Kinh), while the rest collectively speak scores of minority tongues – one estimate counts 54 distinct languages with dozens of dialects. This multilingual landscape means that even common phrases vary: “Merry Christmas” can be Giáng sinh an lành in Kinh Vietnamese, but Duh chinh nâm laeh in one H’mông dialect, or Chaul châng y/Chaul vùn y! in Khmer.
Religion and spirituality are another source of variety. Formal census figures list about 6% Catholic and 5.8% Buddhist adherents, yet those numbers understate the influence of belief. Many people participate in folk Buddhism, Taoism, Confucian rites, and local cults without affiliation to a single creed. Almost 80–90% of Vietnamese report “no religion” in surveys – in reality, many practice ancestor worship or visit temples of native spirits (e.g. Đại Mẫu, the Mother Goddess cult). Catholicism (introduced by the French and Portuguese) has deep roots especially in the North and in Central Vietnam; Saigon’s Notre-Dame Cathedral (a 1880s basilica) and Hội An’s 400‑year‑old Fujian Assembly Hall symbolize this heritage. Meanwhile, the Central Highlands seat of Cao Đài (founded 1926) synthesizes Buddhism, Taoism, Christianity and others under a rainbow-colored temple outside Tây Ninh. The diversity of spiritual life means Vietnam’s calendar is full of festivals – Lunar New Year (Tết) and five ethnic New Years, Lantern Festivals, Vu Lan (Ancestor Day), and countless village feasts – all reflecting the country’s living mosaic.
The Red River valley was home to the first organized cultures (the Văn Lang of the Hồng Bàng dynasty circa 3rd millennium BCE), but for centuries the region lay under the shadow of China. From 111 BCE until 938 CE, Vietnam was often part of Imperial Chinese empires; during this millennium it absorbed Confucian and Buddhist traditions, adopted wet-rice agriculture techniques and built early polities like Annam. In the south, contemporaneous Champa Kingdoms (from the 2nd century CE to 1832) maintained an Indianized civilization of art and Hindu temples (ruins of Mỹ Sơn bear witness to this blend). Farther south, the Khmer Empire influenced the Mekong Delta until the 17th century, leaving behind Angkor-style towers at Mỹ Sơn and southern temples in Sóc Trăng.
Colonial history added new layers. Starting in 1858, France gradually conquered Vietnam, completing control by 1884. French Indochina (1887–1954) introduced Western architecture, Catholicism and modern education. French plantations and railways took root: coffee, rubber and rice export agriculture accelerated, and Indochina’s first railway (1881) ran from Saigon. Hanoi’s wide boulevards (modeled after Paris) and Saigon’s broad avenues date to this era. Not all French influences were welcome. Beef – a forbidden meat to most Vietnamese under earlier customs – became commonplace, giving rise to phở bò (beef noodle soup), a dish that historians trace to early 20th-century colonial Hanoi. Indeed, many classics of Vietnamese cuisine (banh mì baguettes, coffee, pâté chaud, caramelized meats) reflect a Franco-Vietnamese fusion.
Resistance to colonial rule in the first half of the 20th century also shaped Vietnamese identity. After World War II, the brief August Revolution (1945) expelled the Japanese puppet regime, and in 1946 Vietnam entered a period of conflict. Following France’s defeat at Điện Biên Phủ (1954), the 17th Parallel divided the country into the Communist North and anti-Communist South. For two decades they were separate republics, culminating in the United States’ war (1955–1975) to prop up South Vietnam. This prolonged struggle ended when North Vietnamese forces captured Saigon on 30 April 1975, a decisive moment that collapsed the southern regime and brought national reunification (today 30 April is celebrated as Giỗ Tổ, Reunification Day).
Modern Vietnam took shape during post-1975 nation-building. The ruling Communist government embarked on central planning and collectivization, but by the 1980s economic hardships (hyperinflation, food shortages) prevailed. Recognizing the limits of this model, leaders launched Đổi Mới (“Renovation”) in 1986 – a sweeping shift toward market reforms and openness. Within years, shops and cafes reappeared across Hanoi and Saigon, entrepreneurship grew, and foreign investment began to flow. Remarkably, between 1993 and 2014 Vietnam lifted 40 million people out of poverty and slashed the poverty rate from nearly 60% to 14%. Annual GDP per capita growth since 1990 has averaged about 5.6% (second only to China’s in that span). These gains transformed daily life: by 2017 almost every home had electricity (up from less than half in 1993), education levels rose, and Internet and mobile connectivity began uniting even remote hamlets with the world.
Post‑Doi Moi, Vietnam has embraced the global community. It normalized relations with the United States (in 1995) and joined regional groups (ASEAN membership in 1995, WTO in 2007). Today Vietnam hosts international summits (APEC 2006 and 2017, the SEA Games, etc.), and its overseas diaspora – especially the 2.3 million Vietnamese Americans, plus large communities in France, Australia, Canada, and elsewhere – spans continents. Remittances and cultural exchange with this diaspora further enrich the country: Western Christmas markets flourish in Đà Lạt, French pastry shops line Ho Chi Minh City boulevards, and Vietnamese pop music now often includes English rap or K‑pop influences. Yet at the same time, traditional village life endures in many parts of the country, so that history and modernity coexist everywhere.
Vietnam’s built environment mirrors its story. Ancient Cham brick towers (Tháp Bà Po Nagar in Nha Trang; Mỹ Sơn in Quảng Nam) and Khmer-style pagodas (Bà Đen at Tây Ninh) sprinkle the South. In the north, imperial complexes like the Imperial Citadel of Thăng Long (Hanoi) and the Nguyễn Dynasty’s citadel in Huế, both World Heritage sites, recall dynasties of mandarins and emperors. (Hue’s forbidden city is often called Vietnam’s Purple Forbidden City, modeled after Beijing’s.) Mid-19th to mid-20th century colonial architecture lingers: the Old Quarter of Hanoi has French-style shophouses and the Opera House, while Saigon boasts Notre-Dame Cathedral and the Central Post Office. A new Vietnam Urban Planning strategy is melding these heritages with glass‑skyscrapers: in recent years Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City have added metro lines, international airports, and glass-fronted high-rises in districts like Đống Đa and Thủ Thiêm. One notices, walking city streets, that alongside centuries-old temples there are now Japanese lantern stores, Indian curry houses, and Korean banh mì shops – a testament to Vietnam’s open economy and ethnic pluralism.
UNESCO has recognized eight World Heritage sites in Vietnam, reflecting both its cultural breadth and natural wonders. These include Ha Long Bay (natural, 1994); Phong Nha–Kẻ Bàng (natural karst park, 2003); Thăng Long Imperial Citadel (cultural, 2010); the Hue Monuments Complex (cultural, 1993); Hoi An Ancient Town (cultural, 1999); My Son Sanctuary (Champa ruins, 1999); Citadel of the Hồ Dynasty (cultural, 2011); and Tràng An Scenic Landscape (mixed natural/cultural, 2014). Each site draws pilgrims of history, architecture, and scenic beauty. For example, Trang An’s boat routes through limestone caves and temple complexes in Ninh Bình became Vietnam’s first mixed (cultural+natural) World Heritage in 2014 and drew over 6 million visitors in 2019, generating significant revenue for local communities.
Traditional crafts also weave through daily life: villagers spin cotton and hemp on simple treadle looms, carve wood for Dong Son-style drums, or hammer out the gongs and jewelry that inter-ethnic culture relies on. Markets brim with hand-embroidered brocades, lacquerware, conical hats (nón lá), and biwa bows (from the Cham Giao Long tradition). Performing arts – water puppetry (a 1 000-year-old tradition of Đại Việt on flooded rice paddies), ca trù singing, and imperial court music – have won UNESCO intangible heritage status, underscoring that Vietnam’s arts remain dynamic.
No account of Vietnam’s diversity is complete without its food. Vietnamese cuisine varies dramatically by region, yet everywhere shares a balance of fresh herbs, rice, and (often) savory broths. In the North, flavors are subtle: Hanoi’s famous phở bò (beef noodle soup) is served with just scallions and lime, reflecting austere northern palate. The cuisine there features fresh rice noodles, bún rieu (crab soup), bánh cuốn (steamed rice rolls), and chả cá Lã Vọng (turmeric grilled fish). By contrast, Central Vietnam (e.g. Huế, Đà Nẵng) loves spicy heat and complexity: bún bò Huế (lemongrass and chili beef noodle soup) and bánh bột lọc (tapioca shrimp dumplings) illustrate a more robust profile. Southern Vietnam (Saigon/Mekong) incorporates sweeter and richer notes – think thick cà phê sữa đá (iced coffee with condensed milk), bánh mì sandwiches (French baguettes with pâté and pickles), and tropical fruits like rambutan, dragon fruit and durian that pile market stalls. Street food is ubiquitous: gỏi cuốn (fresh rice-paper summer rolls), bánh xèo (crispy savory pancakes), and cơm tấm (broken rice with grilled pork) can be found from city alleyways to rural highways.
Vietnam has also made its mark on the global table. Dishes like phở and banh mì have spread worldwide, and the country is the world’s second-largest coffee producer. Coffee culture – from robusta beans cultivated in the Central Highlands to the chic cà phê trứng (egg coffee) born in Hanoi – accompanies daily life. In rural hill-tribe villages, starchy staples like cassava and maize supplement rice, and local wines (rice wine or rượu cần) are sipped communally through bamboo straws. Markets double as social centers: a market trip might involve tasting chè (sweet dessert soups) from a Khmer vendor, bargaining for Thai baskets at dawn, and sharing a bowl of hot noodle soup with neighbors under a banana-leaf canopy. In this way, food becomes a lens for Vietnam’s diversity – inviting, adaptable, and ever-changing with the seasons.
Vietnam today is a nation of contrasts. Its megacities pulse with energy. Hà Nội, the capital, melds tree‑lined boulevards and French-colonial facades with bustling street vendors and motorbike traffic. At its heart lies the Old Quarter, where the narrow lanes still carry the names of ancient guilds (Silk Street, Paper Lantern Street, etc.). Across the Red River sits Tây Ho (West Lake) with its upscale neighborhoods and pagodas. Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon), Vietnam’s largest city, is a dizzying grid of skyscrapers (Landmark 81 is the nation’s tallest at 461 m), colonial churches, and sprawling markets like Bến Thành. Its skyline now features global hotel chains and tech parks, reflecting the new economy. Both Hanoi and HCMC have built metro systems to tame the scooters. In contrast, secondary cities like Đà Nẵng, Nha Trang and Huế are quieter but growing as economic hubs or tourist bases, each with its own character: coastal Đà Nẵng is breezy and beachy, historic Huế feels mellower and green.
The countryside remains the backbone of Vietnam’s identity. Vast rice paddies flood the deltas in winter, painted green with young seedlings in summer. The Central Highlands’ basalt plateaus are covered by acres of coffee and rubber plantations, worked by ethnic minority farmers. In the far North, terraced fields climb impossibly steep slopes – the rice terraces of Mù Cang Chải (Yên Bái Province) were added to UNESCO’s World Heritage list in 2023 as a model of sustainable agricultural craftsmanship. Yet even here one finds Honda scooters among the herds of buffalo: this scene along a Mekong Delta dike near An Giang shows a farmer whose tamed buffalo graze beside a modern motorbike. Traditional conical hats shade workers as they share space with solar panels and electricity poles. Cheap smartphones now connect even minority households to urban news and online commerce. At the same time, government initiatives ensure basic services reach remote villages: thousands of schools, health clinics and roads have been built in highland regions over recent decades. For example, programs provide iodized salt, malaria prevention and free compulsory schooling to ethnic areas, helping close the rural-urban gap. There is still a notable disparity – northern and highland ethnic communities often have lower incomes than the Kinh lowlanders – but Vietnam’s growth has pulled up much of its population.
Nature and national parks are now part of the tourism economy. National parks like Cát Tiên (Đồng Nai) and Ba Bể (Bắc Kạn) protect rainforests and lakelands, while coastal marine parks on islands such as Côn Đảo preserve coral reefs. Ecotourism lodges in Sapa (Lào Cai) or on Phú Quốc Island (Kiên Giang) cater to the adventurous traveler. The government promotes routes that highlight cultural diversity (homestays in ethnic villages, boat tours through floating Khmer communities) alongside famous sites.
In recent years Vietnam’s global profile has surged. Annual international tourist arrivals (pre-Covid) exceeded 20 million, many from neighboring China, South Korea, Japan and Europe. Tourism now directly contributes over 7% of GDP (and around 13% including indirect effects). Vietnamese food and products, too, are known worldwide: Vietnamese restaurants proliferate abroad, and export staples like rice, coffee, seafood, cashews and textiles are major economic pillars. The nation became a manufacturing hub for electronics (phones, computers) and footwear, attracting companies such as Samsung and Nike. Meanwhile, Vietnam’s cultural exports – pop music, literature, fashion – are burgeoning.
On the diplomatic front, Vietnam maintains an “independent, self-reliant” foreign policy, balancing ties with China and the US while joining initiatives such as the Comprehensive and Progressive Agreement for Trans-Pacific Partnership (CPTPP) and Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP). Its large diaspora (Vietnamese ancestry abroad) often invests back home or travels for “đổi tiền” shopping trips to buy cheap goods and send remittances. These connections bring foreign languages and ideas – English is increasingly dominant among youth, and French still lingers in law and culture – yet Vietnamese identity remains strong. The national motto “Unity – Independence – Integration – Development” (Đoàn kết – Độc lập – Hội nhập – Phát triển) encapsulates this tension: to stay rooted in a rich past while forging ahead.
Vietnam today stands at a crossroads of opportunity and challenge. Economic growth has been robust (GDP often ~6–7% annually before 2020), but the government acknowledges the need to upgrade education, technology, and infrastructure to become a high-income country by 2045. Socially, rapid urbanization and tourism put pressure on heritage sites and the environment. Climate change also looms large: the Mekong Delta is vulnerable to sea-level rise, and Typhoon floods are a reality each year. At the same time, new efforts are underway to blend innovation with tradition – from smart-city projects in Hanoi to community-based tourism in ethnic villages – seeking sustainable paths.
Culturally, Vietnam still radiates vibrancy. Young Vietnamese artists reinterpret folk motifs in modern media, and traditional festivals continue to draw crowds. In 2020 Vietnam successfully hosted international conferences, and in sports, its national football team’s feats thrilled the nation (the “Golden Dragons” ranked 98th globally by FIFA in 2019). Vietnamese coffee, built on 60,000 hectares of coffee plantations mostly of the Robusta bean, fuels not only its economy but its global image; Cha Ka (vietnamese coffee) houses now open from Seoul to Seattle.
Throughout, Vietnam’s diversity at every step is its greatest asset. From the kaleidoscope of ethnic minority villages in the hills to the cultural crosscurrents of Hanoi’s streets, one finds constant variation. It is why scholars of Indochina have called Vietnam a mosaic: a single nation comprising many different worlds. As historian Delos Wilcox wrote in 1908, Vietnam is a land “of manifold contrasts and splendid variety,” a characterization that remains true in 2025 and beyond. Each valley, each market, each temple tells a different story – but together they compose the enduring symphony that is Vietnam.
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