Azerbaijan

Azerbaijan occupies a stretch of land where the flat expanses of the Caucasus converge with the shoreline of the Caspian Sea. Its territory lies between latitudes thirty-eight and forty-two degrees north, and longitudes forty-four and fifty-one degrees east. To the north, the Greater Caucasus range rises abruptly, its summits carving a natural barrier against colder air currents. To the east, the Caspian Sea laps against nearly eight hundred kilometres of coast. To the south, the nation’s boundary meets Iran; to the west, it adjoins Armenia and a brief frontier with Turkey; to the northwest, it meets Georgia; and to the northeast, it touches the Russian republic of Dagestan. Across these frontiers, the Republic of Azerbaijan unfolds in three main physical zones: the flatlands at its heart, the highlands of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and the Talysh Mountains, and the coastal plain of the Caspian. Nearly half of Earth’s known mud volcanoes lie beneath its surface, feeding cones and fissures that sometimes jet flames or steaming gas—a reminder of the region’s subterranean vitality.

The earliest states to govern the lands now called Azerbaijan included Caucasian Albania, followed by successive Persian empires that left an imprint on language, religion, and governance. Until the nineteenth century, this territory belonged to Qajar Iran. The Russo-Persian wars of 1804–1813 and 1826–1828 compelled the Persian shah to cede his Caucasian provinces to the Russian crown under the treaties of Gulistan in 1813 and Turkmenchay in 1828. Russia then organized these lands within a Caucasus viceroyalty. With the collapse of the Russian Empire in 1917, a national consciousness among Turkic-speaking Muslims coalesced into the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic in 1918—the first secular, democratic state with a Muslim majority. This polity endured until 1920, when Soviet forces absorbed the territory as the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic. In the closing days of the Soviet Union, on 30 August 1991, the modern Republic of Azerbaijan reasserted its independence.

The post-Soviet decades brought conflict over Nagorno-Karabakh, a mountainous enclave inhabited largely by ethnic Armenians. In September 1991, that community proclaimed the Republic of Artsakh. After the 1994 cease-fire, Artsakh and surrounding districts nonetheless remained recognized internationally as Azerbaijani land. A renewed Azerbaijani military campaign in 2020 reclaimed seven districts and parts of Nagorno-Karabakh. In late 2023, Baku’s forces moved into the remainder of the enclave, dissolving the de facto Artsakh government and prompting the departure of nearly all Armenian residents.

Azerbaijan’s constitution establishes a unitary, semi-presidential republic. The New Azerbaijan Party has occupied power since 1993, under Heydar Aliyev and then his son Ilham Aliyev. Observers note restrictions on political opposition and media freedom, and reports of civil-liberty constraints. Nonetheless, the state maintains diplomatic ties with 182 countries and participates in thirty-eight international bodies, among them the United Nations, Council of Europe, Non-Aligned Movement, OSCE, NATO’s Partnership for Peace program, the Organization of Turkic States, and GUAM. It has observer status at the World Trade Organization and helped found the CIS and the OPCW.

Nearly all citizens—some ninety-seven per cent—identify as Muslim, though the state enshrines no official religion and ensures secular governance. Shia adherents form approximately fifty-five to sixty-five per cent of believers, with Sunnis comprising the remainder. Christian communities—Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic and small Catholic, Protestant and Evangelical groups—account for some three per cent. A Jewish presence traces back two millennia: roughly twelve thousand Jews live in Azerbaijan today, including the community of Krasnaya Sloboda near Quba, the only Jewish-majority town outside Israel and the United States.

The land’s topography influences its climate, which ranges across nine of the world’s eleven climate zones, from arid lowland steppe to humid, temperate forest. Precipitation varies widely: Lankaran in the south records as much as eighteen hundred millimetres annually, while the Absheron Peninsula receives less than three hundred and fifty. Winters in higher elevations can plunge below minus thirty degrees Celsius, as recorded in Julfa and Ordubad, whereas coastal areas seldom face temperatures below minus five. Streams and rivers—numbering over eight thousand—flow toward the Caspian; the Kur River, at fifteen hundred kilometres, traverses the central lowland before entering the sea. Lakes are scarce but include Sarysu, covering sixty-seven square kilometres.

Nearly forty per cent of Azerbaijan lies above four hundred metres in elevation. The peaks of the Greater and Lesser Caucasus and Talysh ranges exceed four thousand metres in places—Mount Bazardüzü attains four thousand four hundred sixty-six metres—while the Caspian shore, at minus twenty-eight metres, marks the lowest continental point. The nation’s flora encompasses more than four thousand five hundred species of higher plants, representing two-thirds of all Caucasian flora. Forests cover roughly fourteen per cent of the territory, with planted woodlands complementing naturally regenerating stands. Protected areas now cover eight per cent of the land, including seven large reserves established since 2001, when pipeline revenues swelled the environmental budget.

Animal life reflects this diversity: one hundred six mammal species, ninety-seven fish species, three hundred sixty-three birds, ten amphibians, and fifty-two reptiles have been recorded. The Karabakh horse, known for its agility and temperament, stands as a national emblem, though its numbers have dwindled.

Baku, the capital and largest city, occupies the Absheron Peninsula and hosts the nation’s political and cultural institutions. Beyond Baku, only Sumqayit—now effectively a Baku suburb—and Ganja exceed three hundred thousand inhabitants. Other urban centres include Lankaran near the Iranian border, the exclave capital Nakhchivan, Qabala amidst foothills, Sheki with its layered history spanning millennia, Shemakha once seat of the Shirvanshahs, and industrial Sumqayit. The country divides into fourteen economic regions, sixty-six rayons and eleven cities directly governed by the republic; Nakhchivan remains an autonomous republic with its own parliament.

Economically, Azerbaijan has built on its Caspian oil and gas deposits. After independence, the state joined the IMF, World Bank, EBRD, Islamic Development Bank and ADB. The Central Bank, formed in 1992, issues the manat and supervises commercial banks. The manat, reformed in January 2006, circulates in denominations from one to two hundred manat and smaller gapik coins. High oil-sector revenues spurred growth but also inflation—rising above sixteen per cent in early 2007—and exhibited traits of a resource-dependent economy. Since the 2000s, policy measures curtailed inflation and diversified infrastructure. The Baku–Tbilisi–Ceyhan pipeline, operational in May 2006, spans seventeen hundred seventy-four kilometres to Turkey’s Mediterranean, carrying up to fifty million tonnes of oil per year. The South Caucasus Pipeline, inaugurated later in 2006, delivers gas from Shah Deniz to Europe via Georgia and Turkey. Ongoing rail projects, notably the Kars–Tbilisi–Baku railway completed in 2012, aim to link China and Central Asia to Europe. Airports in Baku, Nakhchivan, Ganja and Lankaran connect to regional hubs. Azerbaijan Airlines and other carriers, including Lufthansa, Turkish Airlines, Qatar Airways and various Russian, Ukrainian and Iranian airlines, provide passenger and cargo services. Surface transport comprises nearly three thousand kilometres of broad-gauge rail, some electrified, and a comprehensive road network regulated under the 2002 Vienna Convention on Road Traffic.

Tourism, once vibrant in the Soviet era, suffered setbacks during the 1990s conflicts. Since the early 2000s, it has regained momentum. Religious and spa tourism flourishes: Naftalan’s petroleum-based treatments attract medical visitors; Shahdag and Tufan in Gabala offer winter sports; beaches and resorts along the Caspian host seasonal leisure. The state views tourism as a strategic economic sector, with e-visas and visa-free arrangements for citizens of sixty-three countries. UNESCO recognizes Azerbaijan’s two World Heritage sites: the Walled City of Baku with its Shirvanshah’s Palace and Maiden Tower, and the rock art landscape of Qobustan. Tentative lists include Ateshgah fire temple, Momine Khatun Mausoleum, Hirkan forests, mud volcano fields, Shusha’s heritage district and others. Beyond urban centres, villages such as Khinalug, Nabran, Quba, Lahich, Qax and Nij offer cultural immersion; Göygöl and Shamkir—settled by German colonists in the nineteenth century—retain vestiges of European architecture and viticulture.

Azerbaijani culture reflects its position between Europe and Asia. Music conserves mugham traditions; carpets, textiles and copperware recall centuries-old craft. The literary heritage, from medieval poets to modern novelists, bears Persian and Turkic influences. Architecture fuses eastern forms—muqarnas, domes and iwans—with western engineering, evident in recent landmarks: the fluid contours of the Heydar Aliyev Center, the triple flame profiles of the Flame Towers, and the geometric rigour of SOCAR Tower.

Cuisine exemplifies the land’s fertility and the Caspian’s bounty. Herb-strewn salads accompany mains of mutton, beef or fish. Saffron-tinged plov, the rice-and-meat pilaf, stands central at gatherings. Soups such as bozbash and dushbara offer savory warmth. Flatbreads release aromas from tandir ovens. Qutab—thin turnovers filled with greens or meat—appears as street fare. Black tea, steeped in pear-shaped glasses, punctuates the day. Ayran, sherbet from rose petals or tarragon, and local wines complete tables. Piti, a stew of chestnut-inflected mutton and legumes, appears in regional variations, as does the grape-leaf dolma, often cited as a national dish.

Social customs reflect hospitality and respect for hierarchy. Guests enter homes after removing shoes, and a small odd number of flowers serves as an appropriate gift. In public transport, seats go first to the elderly, handicapped, pregnant women and those with children. Addressing strangers uses honorifics—“Cənab” for men, “Xanım” for women—while English-speakers adopt “Mr.” or “Mrs.” Azerbaijanis adhere to formal greetings, slight bows and standing for elders. Male hosts often lead in courtesies toward female guests.

The Azerbaijani diaspora appears in at least forty-two countries. Within the republic, cultural associations serve ethnic groups: Lezgins, Talysh, Germans, Jews, Kurds and others. Broadcasting in minority languages—Russian, Georgian, Kurdish, Lezgian, Talysh and more—receives state support; print outlets serve diverse readerships.

Azerbaijan’s path marries ancient legacies with modern ambition. Its landscapes range from mud-volcano fields to snow-clad peaks; its cities meld medieval walls with contemporary skylines. Through energy corridors, railway links and cultural ties, it connects continents. Its people uphold traditions of hospitality, craftsmanship and artistic expression. Within this mosaic, Azerbaijan charts a course defined by its geography, history and the choices it makes in governance, economy and culture.