Sudan

Sudan, formally referred to as the Republic of the Sudan, is a large and varied nation situated in Northeast Africa. Sudan has been an important player in African geopolitics and has been crucial in the history of the area with its strategic posture between North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa. The terrain of the nation is as varied as its past, ranging from hilly areas to rich river basins and vast deserts.

With an area of 1,886,068 square kilometers, Sudan geologically ranks third among all the countries in Africa. As of 2024, Sudan is among the most populous countries on the continent with around 50 million people living throughout this vast area. Egypt to the north, Libya to the northwest, Chad to the west, the Central African Republic to the southwest, South Sudan to the south, and Ethiopia and Eritrea to the southeast all surround the nation. Sudan also has access to significant maritime trade routes from its eastward Red Sea coast.

The political, commercial, and cultural center of Sudan is Khartoum, the capital and biggest city in the nation. Khartoum, which sits at the meeting point of the Blue and White Nile rivers, has been a historically important site and remains the beating core of contemporary Sudan.

Sudan’s history is lengthy and multifarious, beginning in prehistoric times. Tens of thousands of years have seen the occupation of the territory that today is Sudan; signs of early human communities from the Paleolithic epoch abound. Among the various prehistoric societies that emerged in the area were the Khormusan (c. 40,000–16,000 BC), Halfan (c. 20,500–17,000 BC), Sebilian (c. 13,000–10,000 BC), and Qadan (c. 15,000–5,000 BC). Early cultures set the stage for the complex tapestry of Sudanese civilization to come.

About 11,500 BC, the War of Jebel Sahaba was one of the most important events in Sudan’s prehistoric era. Considered the first documented organized combat in human history, this fight emphasizes the significance of this area in helping to explain the evolution of human civilizations.

More developed civilizations arose in the area over time. From about 3800 to 3100 BC, the A-Group civilization thrived; then, the Kingdom of Kerma (c. 2500–1500 BC) grew into a strong state controlling trade down the Nile. Sudan saw the effects of ancient Egypt as well, especially during the New Kingdom era (c. 1500–1070 BC), when Egyptian pharaohs stretched their authority southward.

Among the most powerful states in ancient Sudan was the Kingdom of Kush, which ran roughly from 785 BC to 350 AD. Often ruling over Egypt and a significant participant in the ancient world, Kush was known for its sophisticated culture, strong military, and unique pyramid-building technique. Three Christian kingdoms—Alodia, Makuria, and Nobatia—which ruled northern Sudan for several centuries—rose out of the fall of Kush.

Between the 14th and 15th centuries, Arab nomads started to settle in Sudan in great numbers, therefore causing a notable change. This migration progressively brought Islam and Arabic language and practices, therefore changing the cultural and religious scene of the area. Sudan was split among several powers from the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries. Whereas Darfur in the west was governed by its own sultanate, the Funj sultanate administered central and eastern Sudan. The Ottoman Empire was in influence in the eastern parts.

New difficulties and changes for Sudan came with the 19th century. Establishing a state at Dunqulah in 1811, a group of Mamluks became a hub for the slave trade. With attacks in southern Sudan and captives shipped to Egypt and the Ottoman Empire, this era saw the height of slave trading along a north-south axis. Slavery will cause severe wounds on Sudanese society and aggravate long-standing regional conflicts.

Under the rule of Muhammad Ali and his successors, Egypt seized Sudan’s whole land in the 19th century. This era of Turco-Egyptian control strengthened the north-south division and the southern exploitation even further. The Mahdist Uprising, a religious-nationalist movement that momentarily created an independent state before being overthrown by a combined Egyptian-British force, contested Egyptian control, nonetheless.

Under British coercion, Egypt agreed to share sovereignty over Sudan with the United Kingdom in a condominium in 1899, therefore creating an unusual political arrangement. Sudan was essentially controlled as a British colony during this time, even if formally a combined government. This configuration would last until the middle of the 20th century, when change started to sweep over Africa.

Sudan was severely affected by the Egyptian revolution of 1952, which toppled the monarchy. Driven in part by Muhammad Naguib, with Sudanese heritage, the new Egyptian government gave Sudanese freedom top importance. The British agreed to terminate the condominium and award Sudanese independence under pressure from both Egypt’s and Sudanese nationalists. Sudan formally became an independent state on January 1, 1956, therefore launching a new chapter in its history.