Riyadh

Riyadh stands as the defining heart of Saudi Arabia, both in its present role and its layered past. From a modest oasis settlement on the Najd plateau to a metropolis that ranks among the world’s most rapidly expanding cities, its story weaves together geography, history, governance and the tension between deep-rooted tradition and pressing modernity.

Perched at roughly 600 metres above sea level on the eastern edge of the an-Nafud desert, Riyadh occupies dry terrain punctuated by the sinuous course of Wadi Hanifa. Its elevation moderates the heat somewhat, yet summers still routinely exceed 43 °C. Rainfall is scarce overall; a modest share falls in the spring months of March and April, while summer storms are exceptional and often carry sand that reduces visibility below ten metres. A dramatic reminder arrived on 1–2 April 2015, when a vast dust storm grounded flights and shuttered schools across the city. Winters, by contrast, remain mild and brief.

Despite these harsh conditions, Riyadh attracts some five million visitors annually, placing it forty-ninth among the world’s most-visited cities and sixth within the Middle East. Its central location on the Arabian Peninsula, at the crossroads of major highways, reinforces its role both as a political capital and as a regional hub of business and culture.

The name “Riyadh” first appears in Arab chronicles in 1590, applied to the scattered clusters of gardens and wetlands that edged the wadi. It was not until 1745 that the area coalesced into a fortified town under Dahham ibn Dawwas of neighbouring Manfuha. He surrounded the settlement with mud-brick walls and erected a palace, giving the place its name—“the gardens”—in reference to the verdant oases captured within those walls.

In 1744, an alliance between Muhammad ibn ’Abd al-Wahhab and Muhammad bin Saud, ruler of nearby Diriyah, brought Riyadh under their control. Their domain, later called the First Saudi State, endured until 1818 before Ottoman-backed forces dissolved it. The Second Saudi State rose under Turki ibn Abdullah, who made Riyadh his capital in 1825, only to see his authority undermined by the Rashidi emirate allied with Istanbul.

At the turn of the twentieth century, ’Abdulaziz ibn Saud—known in the West simply as Ibn Saud—reclaimed Riyadh in 1902 by seizing the Masmak Fortress from its Rashidi garrison. That feat became emblematic of his ambition and heroism. Over the following two decades, he reunited the disparate regions of Najd and Hejaz, proclaiming the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in September 1932 with Riyadh as its capital. Administration remained centred on the old town until 1938, when Ibn Saud relocated his court to the newly built Murabba Palace on the city’s northern fringe.

The removal of the city’s walls in the 1950s signalled the end of the walled oasis and the start of a sprawling urban era. Where once a square kilometre sufficed, Riyadh expanded outward, absorbing neighbouring villages such as Diriyah, Manfuha and Wadi Laban. By the 1960s, the population had climbed to 150 000; by 2022, it topped seven million, making Riyadh the kingdom’s most populous city and the third-largest in the Middle East. Nationals comprise roughly 64 percent of residents, with expatriates—chiefly Indians (13.7 percent) and Pakistanis (12.4 percent)—accounting for the remainder.

As the seat of the monarchy and government, Riyadh hosts the Supreme Judicial Council, the Consultative Assembly (Shura Council), the Council of Ministers and the King’s court. More than 114 foreign embassies cluster in the Diplomatic Quarter to the city’s west. Locally, the Municipality of Riyadh governs 15 municipal districts under a mayor—since July 2020, Faisal bin Abdulaziz bin Mohammed bin Ayyaf Al-Muqrin—while the Royal Commission for Riyadh City, chaired by Governor Faisal bin Bandar Al Saud, shapes long-term planning.

Looking ahead, Riyadh has secured the right to host Expo 2030, marking only the second Arab metropolis to stage a world exposition after Dubai’s Expo 2020.

Riyadh has evolved into the kingdom’s financial powerhouse. Major banks—the Saudi National Bank, Al-Rajhi, Samba Financial Group—and corporate giants such as SABIC, Almarai and STC maintain headquarters along King Fahd Road (Highway 65). The King Abdullah Financial District, rising around this artery, ranks among the world’s largest business precincts. Two signature towers—the Faisaliyah Centre and the Kingdom Centre—anchor the city skyline along Olaya Road, the principal commercial axis.

Population growth, fuelled by rising birth rates, inward migration and expanding job opportunities, has outpaced virtually every other global city. The Municipality and Royal Commission now oversee a complex mosaic of new neighbourhoods, commercial zones and infrastructure projects designed to accommodate the swelling numbers.

Few relics of the original city walls survive, save the Masmak Fortress—a compact, square stronghold of mud-brick that now serves as a museum near Clock Tower Square (colloquially “Chop Chop Square”). Elsewhere within the old limits stand fragments of wall and gate, along with scattered traditional mud-brick homes, many in various states of decay.

The Murabba Palace, built between 1936 and 1938, ushered in Riyadh’s modern phase. Today it forms part of the King Abdulaziz Historical Centre, which includes the National Museum of Saudi Arabia. Established in 1999, that institution brought together artefacts from across the kingdom: the meteorite known as the “Camel’s Hump,” retrieved in 1966 from the Wabar impact site, now greets visitors in the main hall.

Beyond the city proper lie further vestiges of Najdi heritage. Diriyah’s Turaif district, inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage list in July 2010, preserves the mud-brick palaces and edifices of the First Saudi State. Within its precincts stand Salwa Palace, the Saad bin Saud Palace, the Guest House, the Turaif Bath House and the Imam Muhammad bin Saud Mosque.

In the contemporary era, three skyscrapers dominate:

• Kingdom Centre (300 m, 99 storeys), inaugurated in 2002. Designed by Ellerbe Becket and Omrania, it features a distinct inverted arch near its summit, linked by a sky-bridge offering panoramic views. The east wing houses a three-level shopping mall, including a women-only floor. The structure earned the Emporis Skyscraper Award for design and function.
• Burj Rafal (307.9 m), completed in 2014 by the P & T Group. The mixed-use tower accommodates 474 residences and a 349-room hotel—initially Kempinski, now operating under the JW Marriott banner.
• Al Faisaliyah Centre (44 storeys), Riyadh’s first skyscraper. Conceived by Foster and Partners, it is crowned by a golden sphere inspired by a ballpoint pen, which houses a restaurant and open-air observation deck. Its base contains a luxury mall and hotel wings.

Other architectural markers include the Riyadh TV Tower (170 m, built 1978–81) on Ministry of Information grounds. It served as the birthplace of Saudi-produced television drama, from the 1983 film 1,000 Nights and Night to the satirical series Tash Ma Tash (1986), which provoked the first stirrings of media liberalization.

After decades in which traditional structures were routinely demolished, Saudi authorities now emphasize heritage preservation. The Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage spearheads restoration efforts in Riyadh and beyond, seeking to rescue mud-brick buildings and revitalise historic cores.

Archaeological initiatives within the capital extend to Ain Heet cave, which lies near the village of Heet west of Al Kharj Road. Its deep subterranean lake, estimated at 150 metres, stands among the most accessible speleological sites in the region. Closer in, the Municipality oversees the maintenance of five former city gates—Thumaira, Al-Suwailen, Dukhna, Al-Madhbah and Shumaisi—and four palatial residences: Musmak Palace, Murabba Palace, Atiqah Palace (belonging to Prince Muhammad bin Abdul Rahman) and Al Shamsiah Palace (belonging to Saud Al Kabeer).

Riyadh’s growth has been mirrored by ambitious transit projects. King Khalid International Airport, 35 kilometres north, handled over 20 million passengers in 2013. Plans now envisage six parallel runways and multiple terminals capable of serving 120 million travellers annually by 2030 and up to 185 million by 2050.

Within the city, the King Abdulaziz Public Transport Project has launched both bus and rail networks. The Riyadh Bus system comprises 87 routes, 842 vehicles and approximately 3,000 stops covering 1,905 kilometres; in 2024 it conveyed some 50 million passengers. The Riyadh Metro—the world’s longest driverless network—furthers aims to alleviate road congestion. Saudi Arabia Railways operates passenger and freight lines eastward to Dammam, with future links planned to Jeddah, Mecca, Buraidah, Ha’il and the northern provinces.

A web of highways binds the capital to the wider kingdom. An inner ring road girdles Riyadh’s core; an outer belt connects its suburbs. King Fahd Road (Highway 65) and Makkah Road (Highway 40) traverse the city centre, intersecting near Cairo Square, which consists of a cloverleaf interchange rather than a conventional plaza. These arteries channel traffic through business districts such as Olaya and Sulaymaniyah—where the Faisaliyah and Kingdom towers anchor commercial clusters—and toward the Diplomatic Quarter farther west.

Riyadh remains fundamentally automobile-oriented. Street addresses give way to landmarks and post-office boxes. For newcomers, GPS or up-to-date digital maps are essential. Residents must carry valid identification—passport, national ID or Iqama—at all times to navigate checkpoints and secure services; details of one’s sponsor are commonly requested.

Social life for expatriates often revolves around private compounds and organised gatherings. The city’s conservative fabric restricts certain forms of public entertainment; alcohol is banned and gender segregation persists in many public spaces. Yet, under Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, limited reforms have eased access for single men to shopping centres and reopened select leisure venues.

Security has been tight since a spate of attacks on Westerners from 2002 to 2004, including shootings, bombings and kidnappings. Following the May 12, 2003 compound bombings, Saudi forces tightened control; no similar incidents have occurred since. Crime rates are low by global standards, but road safety poses the greatest risk. Local driving norms often ignore speed limits, lane discipline and traffic signals. Foreigners are advised to drive defensively, use their horns liberally and avoid gestures that could be misinterpreted.

Riyadh’s evolution from fortified oasis to global megacity reflects the kingdom’s broader transformation. Its skyline now combines ancient forts and courtyards with soaring glass towers. The tension between conservative traditions and pressing modernization remains palpable, and the next chapters will test how effectively the city reconciles heritage preservation with burgeoning demands for openness and livability. Hosting Expo 2030 will showcase Riyadh to the world, challenging it to balance its austere legacy with the cosmopolitan aspirations it embraces today.