Sitra Island

Perched just east of Bahrain’s capital, Sitra Island unfolds a complex tapestry of heritage and modernity. About 10 kilometers (6 miles) from Manama, Sitra is a flat, elongate isle of roughly 3.8 square miles (10 km²) – the fourth-largest in the Bahraini archipelago. A narrow tidal channel separates it from Bahrain’s main island, and the sweeping Persian Gulf frames its shores. Historically, the island’s well-watered north was home to lush date‑palm groves and freshwater springs, giving life to small farming villages. Today, asphalt highways and causeways crisscross what were once orchards. The modern Sitra Causeway carries traffic from the capital toward Saudi Arabia, while smaller bridges link the southwest of Sitra to Bahrain Island. The island’s climate is sharply Arabian: summers soar into the mid-40s °C, tempered only by humid Gulf winds, and winters are mild and brief. In this harsh subtropical setting, the islander’s way of life was long defined by the rhythm of sun and tide.

Sitra sits astride the boundary of Tubli Bay, an ecologically rich inlet whose mangroves and mudflats once spread along Sitra’s western shore. (Today much of that shoreline has been reshaped by reclamation.) To the north lies the Salt Island (Nabih Saleh), and across Tubli Bay are Manama and Muharraq. From Sitra one can glimpse Jabal al Dukhan (“Mountain of Smoke”), Bahrain’s only high point, wreathed in desert haze on calm mornings. Despite its strategic locale – guarding inner Gulf waterways and anchoring pipelines to the Eastern Province – Sitra retains vestiges of its oasis past. In the early 20th century, the island’s dozen or so villages clustered where date groves and wells offered shade; today the outlines of those villages (Wadyan, Al Kharijiya, Marquban, Al Garrya, Mahazza, Sufala, Abul Aish, Halat Um al‑Baidh and Al Hamriya) still define the inhabited islandscapes. Even now a vivid patchwork of old and new: shaded lanes of older homes butt up against shiny showrooms and industrial plants. Overhead the sky is vast; in the harsh sun, the sense of space and history is unmistakable.

From Ancient Shores to Colonial Ports

Sitra’s human story is braided into Bahrain’s larger history of the Dilmun and Tylos civilizations. Archaeologists have found traces of Bronze Age trade and settlement all over Bahrain’s isles, and Sitra would have been part of that maritime network. In antiquity the archipelago was a crossroads of Mesopotamian and Indian Ocean cultures. Centuries later, Sitra’s story followed Bahrain’s fortunes: in the 7th century it became part of early Islam’s spread. There are local traditions of medieval pearl divers and farmers who lived on Sitra long before it had any modern facilities.

By the early modern era, Sitra and Bahrain changed hands repeatedly. The island sat under the sway of Persian rulers until the late 1700s. In 1782, tensions flared when the ruling Al Khalifa clan came from Zubarah (in modern Qatar) to raid or resupply on Sitra. A clash between Sitra’s residents and Al Khalifa visitors led to casualties on both sides. The very next year (1783) the Al Khalifa captured Bahrain Island as a whole, and Sitra came under their control as part of the new Bahraini state. In the 19th century, British treaties brought Bahrain into a protectorate arrangement; as the Al Khalifa consolidated power, Sitra remained an outlying fishing and farming backwater. An old deed dated 1699 (1111 AH) is recorded for Sitra’s date groves, illustrating that local palm farms and villages long made the island privately owned farmland.

From 1861 to World War I, Sitra was ruled by Shaikhs of the Al Khalifa under British oversight. Its people – mostly Baharna Shia families – continued subsistence farming and pearl-diving work much as before. They traded their pearls and dates in Manama, and brought back supplies across the causeway at low tide or via small boats. A British naval survey in 1905–06 noted only quiet villages and a few palm gardens on Sitra, with perhaps a few hundred residents.

The discovery of oil in Bahrain in 1932 upended everything. Within five years, a new refinery was built on Sitra’s southern shore to process Bahrain’s crude oil – about 80,000 barrels a day – and to receive Saudi crude piped from Dhahran (another 120,000 barrels per day). That refinery (and its adjoining tank farms) transformed Sitra from agrarian backwater into an industrial hub almost overnight. Sitra became home to Bahrain Petroleum Company (BAPCO) infrastructure: storages, piped connections, and shipping wharves. Overseas tankers now docked at Sitra to load Gulf oil, where once only dhows had bobbed. By the late 1930s the island’s north, once spring-fed orchards, was cleared to build a grid of streets, company housing and service buildings. The era of pearl boats gave way to pipelines and refineries. Bahrain’s first refinery opened near Awali in 1936, and together with it came a company town (“Awali”), but Sitra remained the deep-water gateway – a port for the dawn of the Gulf oil era.

After the war, as oil revenue swelled, Sitra only grew in importance. A new 42 km gas pipeline from Dhahran (Saudi Arabia) to Bahrain was laid to Sitra, under the seabed and then across the causeway. Throughout the 20th century, Sitra was essentially Bahrain’s petroleum terminal. It handled refining and export of nearly all of Bahrain’s oil. “Today Sitra handles Bahrain’s entire petroleum production,” notes one profile, “and is the location of the Port of Sitra,” which also serves fields in northeastern Saudi Arabia. In practice, this meant crude storage tanks and offshore jetties for oil tankers took over the island’s coast. Over time Sitra’s political role receded – there was little local say in these projects – but the island became central to Bahrain’s national economy.

Oil, Gas and the Modern Economy

From 1932 onward, oil shaped Sitra as no other factor did. The BAPCO refinery (opened 1936) was gradually expanded. By the 1960s it had capacity around 250,000 barrels per day, roughly five times the nation’s own output. In other words, Bahrain became a refining center far beyond its own wells. More than 80 percent of the crude flowing into that refinery arrived via the 1970s Aramco pipeline from Saudi Arabia. During the 1973 oil boom, almost all of Bahrain’s state revenue came from these Sitra operations.

Today the Sitra Refinery (owned by BAPCO Energies, the state oil company) remains the largest plant in the kingdom. It ships huge volumes of gasoline, diesel and aviation fuel, much of which is sent through Sitra Port’s terminals. In late 2024 Bahrain launched a $7 billion “Modernization Programme” at Sitra to upgrade and expand the refinery from about 267,000 to 380,000 barrels per day. Work has been proceeding on new cracking and desulfurization units; within a year or two, Sitra’s capacity will mark another leap.

Alongside oil, natural gas has been important. In 1948 Bahrain discovered gas fields, and built pipelines from its well-fields (especially in the north) to Sitra storage. The Saudi gas pipeline likewise empties into Sitra’s facilities. Local gas is now used to fire the island’s power station and desalination plants. In short, nearly 100 percent of Bahrain’s oil and gas commerce passes through Sitra.

The island’s industrial profile has broadened. Once dominated by petrochemicals, Sitra now also hosts assorted factories and warehouses. North Sitra was carved into an Industrial Area zone: petrochemical plants, steel re-rollers, and light-industrial buildings. The colossal Aluminium Bahrain smelter (Alba) lies just offshore at Sitra Marine Terminal, and its waste-calcining units occupy reclaimed land on Sitra. (Alba produces over a million tons of aluminum a year – all of it shipped from Sitra.) More recently, the Bahrain Development Board’s Edamah (Investment Board) developed the Sitra Industrial Park. This complex now boasts roughly 87,000 m² of warehouse and logistics space – with another 8,000 m² under construction. The park provides land for industrial factories, distribution centers, and marine-support units.

Retail and service businesses have followed the workers. Clusters of new car showrooms, furniture outlets and even fast-food franchises have opened along Sitra’s main roads. In the island’s south, the Sitra Bay area (Halat Um al-Baidh) features the Bahia Mar Yacht Club and a private resort – reminders that Sitra also serves recreation for Bahrain’s wealthier residents. Even the longstanding Sitra Club, founded in the 1950s, remains a local sports-and-cultural club for islanders.

Through all this change, Sitra’s port complex grew ever more strategic. Its deepwater wharves – reached by a 4.5 km marine causeway – can accommodate very large crude carriers. At these jetties, Bahrain’s finished fuels are loaded onto ships bound for Asia and Africa. Nearby are bulk terminals for refined products and a nitrogen fertilizer pier. Tanks onshore hold fuel oil and jet kerosene, while miles of pipelines snake under the causeway to the mainland. In short, Sitra is Bahrain’s “oil gateway” in every sense.

The People of Sitra: Baharna Heritage

Beneath the industrial machinery, the core of Sitra remains its people. The island’s residents have traditionally been Baharna – the Shia Arab community indigenous to Bahrain. Ethnographic studies note that Baharna from Manama’s villages also live on Sitra, and they speak a distinctive Gulf Arabic dialect. Small fishing villages have dotted Sitra’s shores for centuries, just as on the main island. Before oil, Sitra’s economy was primarily date-farming and fishing. Family groves of date palms surrounded the villages of Wadyan and Mahazza, while mangrove shores (now largely lost) sheltered dhows. Generations of Baharna fishermen rowed out to the reefs each morning; as one village elder told a journalist recently, “I could navigate our familiar reefs with eyes closed.”

Cultural traditions run deep. Sitra’s villagers mark the Ashura commemorations of Muharram with gatherings at their local matams (mourning halls), where men in black chant lamentations of Karbala. Family shrines (maṭāwī) and mosques in villages like Abul Aish and Al Garrya remain centerpieces of community life. Fishermen and farmers of Sitra say they prize their “baharī” heritage (sea-nature) passed down through stories. During the pearling era, young men used to leap into the Gulf here in search of pearls; after the Japanese market collapsed, many switched to paid labour in oil fields or factories.

In recent years, the island’s Shia majority has come to symbolize political undercurrents in Bahrain. Sitra was prominent in the 2011 pro-democracy protests during the Arab Spring. Thousands of islanders took to the streets, making Sitra a focal point of clashes with security forces. (In fact, the foreign press nicknamed it “Shoreline of Dignity” during those days.) The heavy-handed suppression that followed left scars on the community. But local elders note that after the turmoil, Sitra’s daily life returned to routine: fishermen went back to boat-building, workers to factories, and families to their mosques and markets.

Today Sitra’s human fabric is resilient. Despite the industry and development, neighborhoods of low-rise Baharna homes persist in the old villages. Children still play in narrow alleys of coral-stone houses beneath wind-towered roofs. The ancestry of many islanders (and even some of the oil workers) stretches back to those date farms. In conversation, many Sitrans recall with pride that their grandfathers once traded salted fish or saddle falcons in Manama’s souks. This living heritage survives quietly alongside the din of oil pumps and industrial engines.

Environmental Challenges: Thirst, Pollution and Preservation

Ironically, the bounty of modern Sitra has strained its natural setting. One clear concern is water. Bahrain as a whole has no aquifers to speak of, so it relies on energy-intensive desalination. The first Bahraini sea-water plant was built on Sitra in 1975. Decades of pumping and discharging brine along Sitra’s coast have driven local salinity to record highs. Fishermen report the sea turning yellow-brown near the desal plant’s outflow. One veteran mariner recalls: “We saw salt build-ups on the rocks of Sitra that weren’t there before – it stung our eyes.” Recent scientific investigations confirm their fears: salinity near the Sitra plant’s intake now often exceeds 50 ppt, a severe rise above normal Gulf water. Ecologists link this to sharply reduced catches; indeed, Bahrain has lost 25 % of its fishermen since 2018 and the historic hauls of coral trout, parrotfish and crabs have dwindled. The desalination of Al Dur (south of Bahrain) compounds the problem, but locals point especially at Sitra’s older plant as the “grandfather” of the pollution.

On land, urbanization and industry have also taken a toll. Sitra’s expansion has already eaten half of its tidal flats. The massive East Sitra reclamation project literally doubled the island’s size. Wetlands and shrubland were bulldozed to build a new city district, road networks, and factory yards. Meanwhile, Tubli Bay – whose mangrove belt once hugged Sitra’s coast – has been devastated. Over the past 50 years, Tubli’s mangroves have shrunk by roughly 95 %, turning once-thick “sea forests” into barren mudflats. The culprits include land fill for housing and the residue from construction, but also nutrient runoff and oily effluent from industrial sites. Rare shorebirds have declined, and local fishermen say juvenile reef species now have few nursery areas.

Air pollution is a lower-profile issue, but not negligible. Although Bahrain’s desert wind disperses most fumes, petroleum refineries and smelters do contribute smoke and sulfur dioxide. Residents occasionally wake to thick morning haze, a reminder that Sitra’s industries burn vast fuel volumes. Power and desalination plants also generate heated effluent water which is dumped into the Gulf. Climate change looms as well: scientists warn that Bahrain’s temperature extremes and rising seas could challenge Sitra’s low-lying zones. In the 2020s the government has begun to respond: a national plan (led by the Supreme Council for Environment) seeks to replant mangroves four-fold and protect areas like Ras Sanad (just south of Tubli Bay) as wildlife sanctuaries. In Halat Um al-Baidh, a municipal park (Sitra Park) and small wetlands area attempt to give fragments of green back to the island. But the balance between heavy industry and a healthy marine environment remains delicate.

A Sense of Place: Landmarks and Community Life

Amidst booming oilfields and traffic, Sitra still offers local charms. In each old village there are wells, mosques and communal halls that speak of daily life before gasoline. Sitra Park, near the Yacht Club in Halat Um al-Baidh, is a rare public oasis of lawns and palm groves. In pleasant weather families picnic by its splash pools, and children swing on its playgrounds under tall acacias. On the northeast shore, Al Bandar Resort and its adjacent marina draw sailing enthusiasts from Manama. The yacht club’s slender masts and colorful boats at Halat Um al-Baidh are often photographed against dawn’s pink sky.

In the old quarters, simple landmarks endure. Wadyan village, Sitra’s “capital,” still has a restored Bahraini-style mosque and a cosy souq street where vendors sell the day’s fresh fish and dates. The wooden dhow boats – once the mainstay of Sitra – now cluster as heritage relics and tourist curiosities at the local boatyard. It is not uncommon on Friday mornings to see an older fisherman gliding his skiff out of Sitra Bay to cast nets around the reefs as his grandfather did. For Sitra’s villages, annual events like Muharram processions or Eid festivities provide continuity: lantern-lit street gatherings and traditional sweets recipes remain the same as a century ago.

By contrast, Sitra’s modern skyline is a line of industrial towers and storage tanks lit by neon at night. Massive silos for ammonia and petroleum line Sitra Bay; pipelines and flares hint at the refinery’s behind-the-scenes flames. Yet even here there are curious notes of local character. The old Petroleum Commission Building, a mid-century façade painted mint-green, sits oddly sweet among the metalworks. And street signs in villages still show the old Arabic names (Al Kharijiya, Sufala, Garrya) that villagers utter with pride.

Thus, Sitra is a study in juxtapositions. On the one hand, it is the dynamo that powers Bahrain’s economy – fuel, power and desalination all route through it. On the other hand, it is an island home to farmers and fishermen who have carved out a communal identity. Every Thursday evening the coast road may clog with workers heading to Manama, while at the same time an elderly Sitra woman sits at her doorway shelling beans in the fading light. The island’s mosques broadcast the noon prayer call over the hum of distant turbines. It is in these daily rhythms that Sitra’s future and past seem to meet.

Modern Development and the Road Ahead

Today the Bahraini government and businesses are actively planning Sitra’s next chapter. An example is the East Sitra (New City) project launched in the 2010s. On the reclaimed eastern side of the island, engineers laid out a new suburban grid of roads, bridges and blocks for housing, schools and industry. The first residents moved into modern villas there around 2020. Another is the expansion of the Sitra Industrial Park: Edamah has approvals to add new warehouses and light-manufacturing plots, aiming to attract small manufacturers and logistics firms.

In the energy sector, BAPCO Energies (now partly merged with state investment arms) has completed the big refinery upgrade by 2025. This means Sitra’s refinery can now turn out higher-grade fuels and petrochemicals with lower emissions – a boon to Bahrain’s economy. The company is also considering adjacent petrochemical complexes to produce plastics and fertilizers, further deepening the industrial landscape. Meanwhile, the Trans-Arabian Pipe Line (TRAP), once a symbol of mid-century oil politics, has seen maintenance on its Sitra pumping stations, ensuring Saudi oil can continue to flow through.

Infrastructure projects extend beyond oil. The two-lane Sitra Causeway has been widened in spots to ease traffic, and new feeder roads improve connection to the southern villages of Ma’ameer and Eker. There are plans (under environmental scrutiny) to clean up the old desalination brine and investigate more sustainable water systems. On the recreational side, authorities have proposed biking trails along the eastern lagoon and new mangrove boardwalks at Ras Sanad to promote eco-tourism.

Each new project reaffirms that Sitra’s destiny remains tied to Bahrain’s national narrative. The official line is that Sitra will become a modern oil and industrial city, providing jobs and infrastructure. But locals still debate how to preserve what is left of the island’s heritage. In recent municipal forums, village elders have argued to maintain communal gardens and to document old folklore. Young Bahrainis who grew up on Sitra sometimes return from abroad to restore an ancestral house as a boutique guesthouse – a small sign that the island’s story is valued.

Conclusion: Between Sea and Industry

Sitra Island today is nothing if not emblematic of Bahrain itself – a place of contrasts and convergences. Its terra firma has felt the imprint of history: palm groves cleared for pipelines, dhows traded for tankers, ancestral architecture enveloped by modern high rises. Yet Sitra’s human spirit persists: families cook traditional meals, fishermen sing old sea shanties, and religious processions still wind along the alleyways. “This island has given back much, but it has taken a lot too,” reflects one local elder, watching a petrochemical flame burn orange at dusk.

Indeed, Sitra’s sands have borne witness to Bahrain’s high hopes and hard realities. It was among the first to feel Bahrain’s oil boom, among the first to sacrifice its greens for progress, and among the first to voice political discontent when national currents turned. Today it stands poised once more on the edge of change – harboring Bahrain’s fuel exports, yet challenged by environmental limits. How Sitra navigates these tides may in turn chart a course for the wider country.

For the visitor or scholar, the island offers a rare live exhibit of cultural persistence amid modern transformation. One can stroll a quiet village street and overhear a grandmother speaking classical Gulf Arabic of carpentry and dhow building, just a stone’s throw from a high-tech industrial plant. In that duality lies Sitra’s essence. It is at once a place of work and a place of home; its story runs the gamut from ancient through colonial to contemporary; its future will balance hydrocarbon wealth with sustainable living. Watching ships leave Sitra’s wharves at dawn, carrying Bahrain’s lifeblood across the ocean, one understands: this island will continue to mirror the Kingdom’s journey – anchored by heritage, driven by ambition, and ever shaped by the waters around it.