Afghanistan

Afghanistan occupies a broad expanse of highlands and basins where mountain peaks give way, in places, to flat or gently rolling terrain. The Hindu Kush range, an offshoot of the Himalayas, cleaves the country from northeast to west, its ridges capped by snow and ice. To the north of these elevations lie the Turkestan Plains, a sweep of grassland and semi-desert softly sloping toward the Amu Darya. In the southwest, the Sistan Basin spreads below wind-scoured dunes. Kabul, set in a narrow valley at the eastern edge of the Hindu Kush, serves as the capital and the largest urban centre. Across some 652,864 square kilometres, population estimates vary between 36 and 50 million, distributed among cities, villages and nomadic camps.

Human presence here reaches into the Middle Paleolithic, but the threads of recorded history begin as the land became a conduit for empires. From the Achaemenid Persians and Alexander’s armies to the Mauryan sovereigns, the region shifted among rulers drawn by its strategic position. Arab incursions in the seventh century brought Islam, yet Buddhist monasteries and Hindu temples endured in many valleys before fading. By the fourth century, Hellenistic influences persisted in Greco-Bactrian realms, and centuries later, the Mughals would rise from local foundations to forge an empire extending into the Indian subcontinent.

In the mid-eighteenth century, Ahmad Shah Durrani consolidated Pashtun tribes and Afghan principalities into what is often termed the Durrani Empire, the antecedent of the modern state. Successive Afghan rulers navigated pressures from the British in India and from Tsarist Russia in the north. The First Anglo-Afghan War of 1839 ended in an Afghan victory; the second, a decade later, in a temporary British ascendancy; the third, in 1919, with a treaty that returned full sovereignty. Monarchy followed under Amanullah Khan in 1926, enduring until 1973, when Zahir Shah’s cousin deposed him and installed a republic.

The late twentieth century proved turbulent. A 1978 coup installed a socialist government; Soviet troops arrived in December 1979 to shore up the regime. Afghan fighters, or mujahideen, drew support from abroad and forced a Soviet withdrawal in 1989, yet internecine clashes persisted. In 1996, the Taliban consolidated control under an Islamic emirate unrecognised by most nations. The United States led a coalition in 2001 that deposed the movement’s leadership in response to global terrorism. Two decades of international military presence ensued, punctuated by efforts at state-building and negotiated settlements. In August 2021, the Taliban again assumed authority, seizing Kabul and drawing sanctions that froze central-bank assets. As of early 2025, that administration remains largely isolated, its restrictions on women and reports of human-rights abuses forestalling recognition.

Beneath its rugged relief, Afghanistan holds deposits of lithium, copper, iron and zinc among other minerals. Cultivation yields the world’s second-largest volume of cannabis resin and ranks third in saffron and cashmere output. Yet infrastructural damage from decades of conflict, compounded by mountainous terrain and landlocked status, constrains extraction and transport. The gross domestic product stands near US $20 billion in nominal terms; under purchasing-power parity, closer to US $81 billion. Per capita income places the country among the lowest worldwide. Agriculture accounts for roughly one-quarter of output, services for more than half and manufacturing the balance. External debt totals some US $2.8 billion, and customs data show imports around US $7 billion against exports under US $800 million, mainly fruits and nuts.

Roads thread through valleys and over passes, yet only one, the 2,210-kilometre Ring Road, links Kabul, Ghazni, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif. The Salang Tunnel cleaves the Hindu Kush, offering the sole land passage between northern Central Asia and the subcontinent, while bus routes cross other low-lying passes. Frequent accidents and militant attacks render overland transit hazardous. Air services by Ariana Afghan Airlines and private carriers such as Kam Air connect to regional hubs; four international airports serve Kabul, Kandahar, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif, with nearly forty additional fields for domestic flights. Freight trains cross into Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan and Iran, though no passenger rail operates yet.

Climate shifts sharply with elevation. Winters in the central highlands and the Wakhan Corridor bring prolonged cold, with average January lows below –15 °C and extremes near –26 °C. Summers in basins and plains average above 35 °C in July and may exceed 43 °C in heatwaves. Rainfall concentrates from December to April, favouring eastern slopes of the Hindu Kush; most lowlands lie outside the monsoon’s reach. Two-thirds of water flowing through the country drains across borders into Iran, Pakistan or Turkmenistan. Snowmelt provides critical irrigation, yet decades-old canals and waterworks require roughly US $2 billion of rehabilitation to function efficiently.

Environmental stress has intensified in recent decades. Severe droughts now afflict twenty-five of thirty-four provinces, undermining food and water security and sparking internal displacement. Flash floods and landslides follow heavy rains. Glaciers, once covering higher passes, lost about 14 percent of their mass between 1990 and 2015, heightening the risk of sudden glacial-lake outbursts. By mid-century, climate-driven displacement could affect an additional five million people. Forests cover only two percent of the land—unchanged since 1990—with no primary stands reported and minimal protected woodland.

Despite aridity, the nation supports varied fauna. Snow leopards and brown bears dwell in alpine tundra; the Wakhan Corridor shelters Marco Polo sheep. Mountain forests host lynx, wolves, red foxes, deer and otters. Steppe plains harbour gazelles, hedgehogs and large carnivores such as jackals and hyenas. Semi-deserts in the south support cheetah, mongoose and wild pigs. Endemic species include the Afghan flying squirrel and the Paradactylodon salamander. Avifauna number some 460 species, half of which breed locally, from raptors in high crags to sandgrouse in lowlands. Flora adapts to elevation: conifers in montane corridors, hardy grasses and flowering herbs on bare slopes, shrubs and perennial plants across plateaus. Three national parks—Band-e Amir, Wakhan and Nuristan—preserve landscapes from limestone lakes to alpine valleys.

Administration divides the country into thirty-four provinces, each led by a governor with a provincial capital. Districts beneath provinces oversee clusters of villages or a town. Traditional structures persist in rural areas: clan elders guide communal decisions, mirabs allocate irrigation water, and mullahs provide religious instruction.

Demographic change accelerated since the year 2000. From approximately 15 million in 1979, the population rose above 35 million by 2024, split roughly three-quarters rural and one-quarter urban, with some four percent maintaining nomadic livelihoods. High fertility rates place growth near 2.4 percent annually, projected to exceed 80 million by 2050 if current trends continue. Returning refugees from Pakistan and Iran have introduced skills and capital, fueling construction and small enterprises. Economic recovery, though uneven, has benefitted from remittances and investments in telecoms, generating over 100,000 jobs since 2003. Carpet weaving, long a tradition, resurged in the mid-2010s as rugs found renewed markets abroad. Major infrastructure ventures include new residential districts beside Kabul, and urban projects in Kandahar, Jalalabad, Herat and Mazar-i-Sharif.

Ethnolinguistic composition reflects centuries of movement and settlement. Pashtuns constitute roughly 42 percent of the population, Tajiks 27 percent, Hazara and Uzbek groups 9 percent each, with other communities—including Aimaq, Turkmen, Baloch and Nuristani—among the remainder. Dari Persian and Pashto serve as official languages; Dari functions as the lingua franca across much of the north and in government, while Pashto predominates in southern and eastern areas. Uzbek, Turkmen, Balochi and smaller tongues appear regionally. Bilingualism is widespread; returnees from Pakistan often speak Hindustani, while English and residual Russian knowledge appear in urban and educational settings.

Religious observance shapes daily life. Sunnis, chiefly of the Hanafi school, form at least 85 percent of the population; Shia communities, mostly Twelver, range up to 10 percent. Small numbers of Sikhs and Hindus remain in urban centres, maintaining places of worship under strict security. Christian believers practice discreetly.

Social norms derive from a blend of Islamic principles and local codes. Pashtunwali, the traditional Pashtun ethic, emphasizes hospitality, protection of guests, and restitution for harm. Parallel-cousin marriage and bride price remain common, with legal marriage age at 16. Extended families inhabit compounds of mud-brick or stone; in villages, a malik, mirab and mullah jointly mediate disputes and resource allocation. Nomadic Kochis traverse seasonal pastures, exchanging dairy and wool for staples in settled communities.

Attire reflects climate and custom. Men and women often wear shalwar kameez variants—perahan tunban or khet partug—accompanied by cloaks, such as the chapan, or headgear: the broad-brimmed karakul hat once favoured by rulers, the pakol of mountain guerrillas, and the rounded Mazari cap. Urban dress may mix local styles with Western garments, while conservative areas see widespread use of head coverings: chadors or the full-body burqa.

Material heritage spans eras. Buddhist stupas and monasteries stand near ancient trade routes; Hellenistic ruins lie alongside fortifications of successive empires. The Minaret of Jam and the ruins of Ai-Khanoum testify to early medieval grandeur. Islamic architecture flourishes in the Friday mosques of Herat and Balkh’s shrines. Palaces from the 1920s echo European forms. Civil conflict has damaged many monuments, yet restorations—such as those at the citadel of Herat—offer glimpses of earlier craftsmanship. The Buddhas of Bamiyan, once among the tallest sculptures worldwide, survive only in memory after their destruction in 2001.

Cuisine revolves around staple grains—wheat, barley, maize and rice—with dairy from sheep and goats. Kabuli palaw, a pilaf of rice layered with meat, raisins and carrots, stands as the national dish. Fruits—pomegranates, grapes, melons—feature prominently in markets. Tea binds social gatherings, served with sugar or cardamom. Yogurt, flatbreads and roasted meats accompany daily meals.

Festivities blend ancient and Islamic observances. Nowruz marks the spring equinox with music, dance and buzkashi tournaments. Yaldā, the midwinter night, gathers families to recite poetry beside fruit and nuts. Ramadan fasts and Eid celebrations punctuate the lunar calendar. Minority communities observe Vaisakhi, Diwali and other traditions. Independence Day on 19 August commemorates the 1919 treaty that ended foreign suzerainty. Regional events—such as Mazar-i-Sharif’s Red Flower Festival—draw crowds with cultural performances and sporting contests.

Tourism faces security constraints yet attracts tens of thousands of visitors each year. The Bamyan Valley, with its lakes, canyons and archaeological sites, remains one of the safer destinations. Trekking parties venture into the Wakhan Corridor, one of the world’s most remote inhabited regions. Historic cities—Ghazni, Herat, Kandahar, Balkh—offer mosques, minarets and bazaars. The Shrine of the Cloak in Kandahar, said to hold a relic of the Prophet, draws pilgrims. The National Museum in Kabul preserves artifacts spanning millennia.

Since the Taliban’s return in 2021, tourist numbers climbed from under one thousand to several thousand annually, though attacks by extremist factions pose ongoing risks.