Kabul

Kabul sits amid the eastern reaches of Afghanistan, its low-lying valley cradled by the Hindu Kush. At 1,790 metres above sea level, the city extends along the Kabul River, its winding course defining both ancient and modern quarters. The old neighbourhoods cluster near the riverbanks—Khashti Bridge, Shorbazar, Deh-Afghanan—where narrow lanes still recall a time before asphalt. Beyond, the urban sprawl climbs hills and plateaus, now subdivided into twenty-two municipal districts that together form Afghanistan’s most populous municipality.

Archaeological evidence suggests human presence near Kabul’s present site more than 3,500 years ago. By the sixth century BCE, Achaemenid records referred to a settlement astride vital trade routes between Persia, the Indian subcontinent and the steppes of Central Asia. Over centuries, Kabul’s strategic value attracted empires in succession: Seleucid and Bactrian Hellenistic rulers, Mauryan emissaries, Kushan patrons of Buddhist art, and later Muslim dynasties—from the Turk Shahis to the Timurids. Each dynasty left architectural traces and reshaped the city’s identity.

In the sixteenth century, the Mughal emperors designated Kabul their summer seat. Under Humayun and Akbar, gardens and palaces took form, augmenting the city’s economic and cultural weight. Nader Shah’s brief conquest in 1738 ushered in a period of turmoil, but in 1747 Ahmad Shah Durrani, an Afghan chieftain, consolidated power and established the Durrani realm. His successor, Timur Shah Durrani, moved the capital from Kandahar to Kabul in 1776, a choice later ratified by successive Afghan rulers.

During the Second Anglo-Afghan War (1878–1880), British forces occupied Kabul. Treaties secured diplomatic ties but ceded control of Afghan foreign affairs to Britain. After a decade, the British withdrew, leaving a weakened but sovereign emirate. Kabul’s narrow streets and its hillside cemeteries—Shuhadayi Salihin—witnessed both skirmishes and the cautious revival of local governance.

The early twentieth century saw planned avenues, new government buildings, and railway proposals that never materialized. In the 1960s, Kabul earned informal distinction as the “Paris of Central Asia,” its cafés and cinemas drawing European travellers following the overland route to India. Bagh-e Babur (the Gardens of Babur) and Darul Aman Palace became symbols of burgeoning cosmopolitanism.

That era ended with the 1978 coup d’état known as the Saur Revolution. Within a year, Soviet troops intervened, and the ensuing decade of warfare fragmented Kabul’s streets. By 1992, mujahideen factions vied for control, reducing much of the central city to rubble. The Taliban’s rise in 1996 imposed strict social codes, closing cinemas and repurposing buildings. After 2001, NATO-led forces ousted the Taliban, spurring reconstruction and a surge of refugees returning from exile. In August 2021, Kabul again fell under Taliban rule as foreign forces withdrew.

Kabul’s valley is bounded by steep ridges known locally as kohn—Khair Khana-e Shamali to the north, Sher Darwaza to the south—while hills, or tapa, punctuate the urban fabric. Koh-e Asamai, “Television Hill,” rises near western suburbs; Ali Abad anchors another cluster of residential sprawl. Southward, the Logar River merges with the Kabul River. In wetter months, the rivers flow steadily; by summer, climate shifts often reduce them to trickles.

Until recent decades, Kol-e Hashmat Khan marshland lay just beyond the old city. Its wetlands sustained migratory waterfowl between Siberia and South Asia. Designated a protected area in 2017, the shallow lake still attracts rare species such as Eastern imperial eagles. Further upstream, the artificial Qargha Dam created a recreational reservoir nine kilometres northwest of downtown.

Kabul’s elevation yields a cold semi-arid climate. Winters bring snow; January averages hover around −2.3 °C. Spring delivers the greatest rainfall, often as late snows. Summers, though dry, feel temperate by regional standards, with low humidity easing daytime heat. Autumns shift swiftly from warm afternoons to cool nights. Annual mean temperature remains near 12 °C, lower than most other Afghan cities.

Over the twenty-first century, Kabul’s population expanded rapidly—from under half a million in 2001 to more than seven million by 2025. Rural-urban migration, returnees from Pakistan and Iran, and displacement from conflict fuelled informal settlements on hillsides. Authorities tolerated mud-brick dwellings lacking utilities. Beginning in 2017, municipal crews painted these homes in bright hues to improve morale.

Administratively, Kabul District encompasses the city proper within Kabul Province. Eighteen municipal districts, numbered one through eighteen, grew to twenty-two by 2010 when four rural fringes were absorbed. District 1 holds most of the old city; districts 2, 4 and 10 form the modern downtown. Disputes over governance sometimes leave peripheral districts under provincial rather than municipal authority.

Kabul functions as Afghanistan’s financial and commercial hub. Traditional crafts—fruit drying, nut processing, carpet weaving, leatherwork—persist alongside new ventures: indoor shopping malls like Kabul City Center (opened 2005), Gulbahar Center and Majid Mall. Wholesale bazaars concentrate along Mandawi Road and the Sarai Shahzada money-exchange market. Chicken Street draws foreign visitors seeking antiques and textiles.

Industrial zones cluster north of the river in District 9 and at Bagrami-Kariz, nine hectares of serviced land hosting a Coca-Cola plant and juice factories. However, persistent corruption—ranked among the world’s highest in 2010—continues to deter large-scale foreign investment. International aid, including a US $25 million World Bank reconstruction project (2002–2011) and US $9.1 billion in subsequent infrastructure funding, underpins road improvements and public services.

The city retains vestiges of multiple eras. The Arg Fortress and Bala Hissar citadel recall Durrani and Mughal strongholds; Id Gah Mosque (1893) and Abdul Rahman Mosque serve congregations today. Bagh-e Bala Palace commands a hilltop view. Museums house artefacts from Buddhist and Greco-Bactrian times: coins, statuary, the Surya sculpture at the National Museum. Paghman Gardens and its Taq-e Zafar arch lie west of the city, while Jalalabad Road’s Tang-e Gharu gorge offered travellers shelter.

Pre-industrial entertainment spaces mostly vanished: once twenty-three cinemas operated, now only four remain. The Nandari National Theatre, once among Asia’s largest, stood destroyed by civil war and remains unrestored. Recent demolitions closed Park Cinema in 2020. Afghan Royal Family Mausoleum, Kabul Zoo, and the OMAR Mine Museum survive as quieter draws.

No rail lines reach Kabul. Highways fan out in all directions: AH76 north to Charikar and Mazar-i-Sharif; AH77 west toward Bamiyan; the Ghazni–Kandahar route south-west; the Jalalabad corridor east to Pakistan. Inside the city, roundabouts at Pashtunistan Square and Massoud Circle form key junctions; Sar-e Chawk once marked Maiwand Road’s centre.

Road congestion spurred planning of a 95 km ring road approved in 2017, though construction remains incomplete. A bus rapid transit project slated for 2018 faced delays; in March 2021, IC Bus vehicles inaugurated a new urban service. Kabul’s Milli Bus network, established in the 1960s, still operates some 800 diesel buses alongside informal taxis—mostly aged Toyota Corollas painted white and yellow. Attempts at electrified transit, such as the Škoda trolleybus system (1979–1992), ended during warfare; occasional steel poles remain as reminders.

Since 2019, municipal authorities have used D-Agree, an online deliberation platform, to solicit citizen feedback on urban projects. By August 2021, over 15,000 residents contributed to planning discussions, generating more than 71,000 comments. Despite shifting political control, the platform continues under United Nations auspices as a model of digital participation.

Kabul holds layers of history—from Achaemenid references to twentieth-century modernism—yet it faces persistent challenges: air pollution worsens each winter as low-grade fuels burn in improvised stoves; water scarcity and riverbed desiccation signal broader environmental shifts. Informal settlements strain municipal services, while corruption constrains investment. Nonetheless, Kabul remains Afghanistan’s core, its streets testimony to centuries of human endeavor, and its architecture an archive of cultural convergence.