Taiwan

Taiwan occupies a narrow arc between the East and South China Seas, where five mountain ranges dominate its eastern two-thirds and a series of plains extend across its western third. The island itself spans 35 808 square kilometres, within a total of 168 islands under the Republic of China’s jurisdiction covering 36 193 square kilometres. Taipei, New Taipei City and Keelung form its largest conurbation, home to nearly 24 million people, ranking Taiwan among the most densely populated territories on the planet.

Human presence on Taiwan stretches back at least 25 000 years. Around 6 000 years ago, Austronesian settlers arrived and established the ancestors of today’s indigenous communities. In the early seventeenth century, Dutch colonial authorities oversaw the first large influx of Han migrants, a movement that continued under the Kingdom of Tungning, the first Han-led polity on the island. Qing forces annexed Taiwan in 1683, only to cede it to Japan in 1895. After Japan’s 1945 surrender, the Republic of China assumed control; civil conflict with Communist forces led the ROC government to relocate to Taiwan in 1949, confining its effective rule henceforth to Taiwan, Penghu, Kinmen, Matsu and a handful of South China Sea islets.

Between the 1960s and the 1980s, Taiwan’s economy advanced rapidly, a transition often termed the Taiwan Miracle. Industrialisation followed an export-oriented model centred on steel, machinery, electronics and chemicals. Small and medium-sized enterprises became the backbone of production, differing from the large conglomerates of neighbouring economies. By October 2022, Taiwan ranked twenty-first in nominal GDP and twentieth by purchasing-power parity, with total trade reaching US$907 billion: exports at US$479.5 billion and imports at US$427.6 billion. China, the United States and Japan together accounted for over forty percent of that exchange. High-tech parks and a shift toward capital-intensive industries underpinned sustained growth.

Geologically, Taiwan is a tilted fault block. The five mountain ranges in its east include peaks above 3 500 metres; the highest, Yu Shan, rises to 3 952 metres, making Taiwan the fourth-highest island in eastern Asia. Active tectonics and submarine volcanism trigger frequent earthquakes. Four terrestrial ecoregions—subtropical evergreen forests, monsoon rain forests, South China Sea islands, and southern monsoon forests—support diverse flora and fauna. Forest cover integrity scored 6.38 out of 10 in 2019, placing Taiwan seventy-sixth of 172 nations.

Climatically, Taiwan lies on the Tropic of Cancer. Rainfall averages 2 600 millimetres annually, with heavy showers from May through September owing to the East Asian monsoon. Hot, humid weather persists from June to September, when typhoons are most frequent. Winters, from November to March, bring steady rain to the northeast, while central and southern zones remain comparatively dry and sunny. Average temperatures have risen 1.4 °C in the last century—double the global mean increase—prompting government targets to reduce emissions by 20 percent by 2030 and 50 percent by 2050 relative to 2005 levels.

The island’s political status remains unresolved. Taiwan lost its United Nations seat in 1971, as members recognised the People’s Republic of China; the ROC government abandoned its 1949 claim to represent all China in 1991. Beijing maintains that Taiwan forms part of its territory and denies diplomatic recognition to states maintaining formal ties with Taipei. The ROC today sustains official relations with eleven UN members and the Holy See, while others host de facto embassies under various titles. Domestic politics pivot around two coalitions: Pan-Blue parties favour eventual unification under the ROC, while Pan-Green groups endorse formal independence. Both sides have moderated positions to appeal more broadly.

Transport networks concentrate where people congregate. By March 2019, 13.86 million scooters carried residents twice as many as cars. Highways extend for 1 619 kilometres, chiefly along coasts. The Taiwan Railways Administration operates a circular system; the Taiwan High Speed Rail links western cities. Urban metros serve Taipei, New Taipei, Kaohsiung, Taoyuan and Taichung. Airports at Taoyuan, Kaohsiung, Songshan and Taichung handle civilian traffic. Seven domestic airlines operate, led by China Airlines and EVA Air. Seven seaports, with Kaohsiung handling 58.6 percent of the nation’s 750 million-tonne throughput in 2021, underpin maritime trade.

Taiwan’s population, about 23.4 million in 2022, includes 95 percent Han Chinese, 2.4 percent indigenous Austronesians and 2.6 percent more recent arrivals from China and Southeast Asia. Among Han, Hoklo descent represents roughly 70 percent, Hakka 15 percent, and “waishengren” those linked to post-1949 migrants. Genetic analyses indicate southern Chinese origins with intermixing among Austronesian groups before migration. Sixteen indigenous communities—Ami, Atayal, Bunun, Kanakanavu, Kavalan, Paiwan, Puyuma, Rukai, Saisiyat, Saaroa, Sakizaya, Sediq, Thao, Truku, Tsou and Yami—inhabit eastern highlands and Orchid Island. Their languages belong to Austronesian families and employ Latin script; use has declined outside of cultural revival efforts.

Mandarin dominates business and education without a legally prescribed official tongue. Traditional Chinese characters remain the standard writing system. Taiwanese Hokkien, spoken by 70 percent of the population, and Hakka, at 14–18 percent, have reappeared in public life since the 1990s. A movement seeks to simplify judicial texts into vernacular Chinese, as many rulings still employ classical forms. Classical Chinese survives in formal ceremonial contexts, including the national anthem.

Religious freedom is enshrined in the constitution. In 2020, folk religions accounted for 43.8 percent of adherents, Buddhism 21.2 percent, Taoist-related practices 15.5 percent, unaffiliated 13.7 percent, Christianity 5.8 percent and Islam 1 percent. Around 15 175 religious buildings exist—one for every 1 572 residents—including 2 317 Buddhist temples, 9 684 Taoist temples and 2 845 churches. Indigenous Christians form a notable minority. High religious liberty scores have made Taiwan one of the few “open” societies in Asia-Pacific.

A fusion of Han Chinese traditions, indigenous customs, Japanese colonial legacies and Western ideas shapes Taiwanese culture. During martial law, Kuomintang authorities promoted a “Chinese Cultural Renaissance” to preserve traditional arts and language. After 1987, restrictions eased, enabling a flourishing of literature, media and academia. In 2022, Taiwan ranked second in Asia-Pacific on the Democracy Index; civil liberties and freedom of expression support a vibrant cultural scene. Recent waves of Hong Kong migrants have enriched discourse, averaging nearly 9 000 arrivals per year from 2019 to 2022.

Administratively, Taiwan divides into Northern, Central, Eastern, Southern regions and outlying islands. Northern Taiwan, anchored by Taipei, serves as political and technological centre. Central areas span Changhua, Miaoli, Nantou and Taichung, known for mountains, lakes and parks. Eastern counties of Yilan, Hualien and Taitung lie beyond the central spine, sites of indigenous heritage and natural vistas. Southern locales—Chiayi, Kaohsiung, Pingtung and Tainan—feature tropical coasts and historic architecture. Outlying isles—Kinmen, Matsu, Penghu, Green and Orchid—offer local retreats.

Urban centres range from Taipei, a global metropolis with landmarks such as Taipei 101 and the National Palace Museum, to Jiufen, a former mining village famed for narrow streets and seaward views. Tainan retains its status as Taiwan’s oldest city, with temples and colonial relics such as the Anping Tree House. Kaohsiung, the third largest city, hosts one of the busiest ports and a modern waterfront. Taichung draws visitors to its bakeries and cultural parks; Hualien and Taitung offer access to Taroko Gorge and coastal cliffs.

Outdoor pursuits appeal across the island. Hot springs in Beitou, Wulai and Yangmingshan reflect a volcanic heritage; public baths require thorough cleansing before entry and often segregate by sex, though some offer private, suit-required pools. Mountain trails range from gentle Taipei City routes to multi-day treks of Yushan and the Wuling Sixiu, for which permits and lodging lotteries apply. Shrimp fishing in indoor pools, stocked with Thai prawns and coupled with on-site cooking, has grown popular among locals and visitors alike.

The New Taiwan dollar (NT$) subdivides into 100 cents (分); colloquially, yuan and kuài denote the unit, while fēn, jiǎo and máo denote fractional amounts. Living costs fall below those of Japan and South Korea but exceed many Southeast Asian destinations. A minimal daily budget might start at NT$1 000; street meals cost NT$50 or less, fast-food around NT$150 and high-end dining over NT$1 000. Upscale hotels may list rooms for NT$5 000 or more. Taxis operate on metered or fixed fares with optional negotiation; tipping is uncommon outside of bellhop gratuities.

Custom and etiquette reflect Confucian principles of respect and harmony. Business cards exchange with both hands and a slight bow. Taboo gifts include clocks, shoes, knives and umbrellas, owing to linguistic or symbolic associations. Shoes must be removed before entering homes, with slippers provided. Anonymous gift-giving among friends invites reciprocation at leisure. Public transportation reserves priority seats for elderly, disabled and pregnant passengers. In temples, visitors should bow to deities, avoid stepping on thresholds and refrain from pointing with a single finger.

Taiwan’s identity continues to evolve amid external pressures and internal debates. Some emphasize a singular Chinese heritage; others adopt a distinct Taiwanese nationalism or multicultural perspective that incorporates indigenous, mainlander and immigrant narratives. This dynamic reflects more than a century of separation from the mainland and a commitment to democratic liberties, which shape its society, culture and international presence.