Cambodia

Cambodia occupies the southern reaches of the Indochinese Peninsula, its 181,035 km² spread between 10° and 15° N and 102° and 108° E. Lowlands dominate the heart of the country, where the Mekong River meets the seasonal influx of the Tonlé Sap, Southeast Asia’s largest freshwater lake. Beyond this fertile plain, transitional fields rise gently to 200 m, giving way to sandstone escarpments and uplands: the Dângrêk Mountains to the north, the Krâvanh and Dâmrei ranges to the southwest, and the remote Cardamom and eastern highlands. Around 46 percent of Cambodia remained forested in 2020, though canopy cover has declined since 1990. Mangroves fringe the 443 km coastline along the Gulf of Thailand, while inland wetlands flood annually, swelling Tonlé Sap from some 2 590 km² in the dry season to nearly ten times that at the monsoon’s peak.

The nation’s climate reflects its tropical monsoon pattern. From May to October, humid winds rise from the Gulf of Thailand and Indian Ocean, yielding heavy rains—particularly in September and October. A cooler, drier season follows until April, when temperatures can climb toward 40 °C. Such extremes leave Cambodia among the region’s most climate‑vulnerable states: higher sea levels, erratic rainfall and flooding threaten agriculture, water supplies and the Tonlé Sap’s fragile ecology.

Cambodia’s recorded history begins in 802 AD, when Jayavarman II proclaimed himself ruler of Kambuja, thus uniting the Chenla principalities and inaugurating the Khmer Empire. Over five centuries, Angkorian kings oversaw grand hydraulic works, temple‑cities and the erection of Angkor Wat, whose harmony of stone and iconography became a testament to the spread of first Hinduism, then Buddhism across Southeast Asia. By the fifteenth century, however, dynastic struggles and foreign raids eroded Khmer power.

In 1863, seeking protection against its neighbors, the monarchy placed itself under French oversight. Colonial rule brought railways, administrative reform and Catholic missions, yet imposed resource extraction on rural populations. Japanese forces occupied the country briefly during World War II; in 1953, King Norodom Sihanouk negotiated full independence from France.

The following decades proved turbulent. The Vietnam War spilled over into Cambodia, precipitating civil war. A 1970 coup deposed Sihanouk and installed a U.S.‑backed republic. Five years later, the Khmer Rouge swept Phnom Penh, instituting forced evacuations and mass executions that claimed nearly two million lives. In 1979, Vietnamese intervention ended the regime, but civil strife persisted until the 1991 Paris Peace Accords. United Nations peacekeepers organized elections in 1993, restoring a constitutional monarchy under King Norodom Sihanouk, though real power consolidated around Hun Sen and the Cambodian People’s Party following a 1997 coup.

Today, Cambodia is a constitutional monarchy and multi‑party state, yet the ruling party dominates the legislature and administration. The United Nations classifies it as a least developed country. Development has accelerated since the turn of the century: average GDP growth reached 7.7 percent between 2001 and 2010, driven by garments, construction and tourism. Per capita income stood at roughly US$4 022 (PPP) in 2017, yet nearly half the population remained below US$2 per day. Agriculture still employs the majority, with rice, rubber, timber and fish as chief commodities. Exports and foreign investment have climbed, even as challenges endure: deforestation, corruption and restricted civic space weigh on reform efforts.

Biodiversity in Cambodia spans seasonal forests, swamps and waterways. More than 180 tree species and over 1 200 vertebrates inhabit the lowlands and uplands. The Tonlé Sap Biosphere Reserve—a UNESCO site since 1997—supports 850 freshwater fish species and dense waterbird populations. The Cardamom Mountains, Mondolkiri plateaus and Kep mangroves shelter endangered mammals, including Asian elephants and dholes. Six terrestrial ecoregions are recognized, from evergreen rainforests to dry dipterocarp woodlands, underscoring the need for strict conservation measures amid logging and land conversion.

Administratively, Cambodia divides into 25 provinces plus the capital municipality of Phnom Penh. Districts and municipalities subdivide into communes and quarters. This hierarchy reflects both historical boundaries and efforts to decentralize governance, though local officials often lack resources to implement policies effectively.

Demographically, the kingdom counts some 17 million people. Ethnic Khmer form around 96 percent of the populace; Chams, Vietnamese and Chinese make up most minorities. Highland groups, collectively Khmer Loeu, inhabit the eastern mountains, preserving distinct languages and customs predating Indian influence. Cambodia’s young profile—half the population is under 22—coexists with a female‑biased sex ratio in older cohorts. Fertility has declined from four births per woman in 2000 to about 2.5 in 2018, reflecting urbanization and rising educational attainment.

Khmer is the official language, its script descending from Pallava Brahmi. French retains a presence in law and education, while English, increasingly prominent since the 1990s, dominates business and tourism contexts.

Theravāda Buddhism shapes national identity: over 95 percent of Cambodians are Buddhist. Monasteries and monks play central social roles. Ancestor worship and Hindu‑derived spirit practices persist in rural areas. Minorities observe Islam (predominantly Cham communities) or Mahāyāna Buddhism blended with Taoist and Confucian rites among Chinese and Vietnamese groups.

Art and ritual reflect this layered heritage. Classical dance and bas‑relief sculpture trace back to Angkorian patrons. Folklore endures on palm‑leaf manuscripts, while the sampeah greeting and krama scarf remain everyday markers of national dress. Festivals punctuate the annual cycle: Khmer New Year in April, Pchum Ben in September to honour the dead, and Bon Om Touk, the Water and Moon Festival, when thousands gather on riverbanks to watch boat races and fireworks as the Tonlé Sap reverses flow.

Cuisine centers on rice and fish. Prahok, a pungent fermented paste, underpins many dishes. Num banhchok (rice noodle salad), fish amok (coconut‐steamed curry) and the French‑influenced red curry served with baguette illustrate the blend of local taste and colonial legacy. Kampot pepper reinforces crab from Kep, while roadside stalls offer kuyteav, a pork broth noodle soup. Tea from Mondolkiri and strong, sugar‑sweetened coffee—roasted with diverse fats—accompany daily life. Microbreweries and rice‑wine infusions such as sra tram diversify the drinking scene.

Tourism has become a pillar of the economy. Arrivals rose from fewer than 300 000 in 1997 to over six million by 2018. Angkor Archaeological Park remains the prime attraction, yet backpackers also visit Phnom Penh’s riverside skyline, the beaches of Sihanoukville and the Kampot–Kep peninsula. Ecotourism in Bokor National Park, dolphin‑watching in Kratie and homestays near floating villages around Siem Reap offer alternative pacing. Nonetheless, political unrest and isolated crimes have tarnished perceptions of safety, while souvenir production struggles to match demand.

Transport infrastructure continues to recover. The principal east–west highway linking Phnom Penh and Sihanoukville has been fully paved and bridged; rail services have resumed on metre‑gauge lines to Battambang and the coast. Inland waterways remain vital trade arteries. Three international airports—Phnom Penh, Siem Reap and Sihanoukville—and a fourth under construction at Phnom Penh aim to accommodate rising passenger volumes. Road safety, however, lags: fatality rates far exceed global norms, compounded by rapid motorbike growth.

In daily commerce, the Cambodian riel (KHR) and U.S. dollar circulate side by side. Small transactions use riel; larger ones employ dollars. The riel trades at roughly 4 000 KHR per US$1. Thai baht may be accepted near the western border, though often at unfavourable rates. Banknotes span 50 to 200 000 KHR, with novelty denominations valued by collectors. ATMs dispense both currencies, and major credit cards are widely accepted in urban centers—yet rural travelers are advised to carry cash for essentials.

Prices in Cambodia exceed those of neighboring Laos and Vietnam by up to half, especially in tourist hotspots. Daily budgets of US$15 per person permit modest lodging and meals, though haggling and remote‑area travel can reduce costs.

Despite a half‑millennium of upheaval—colonial rule, wartime devastation and genocide—Cambodia stands today as a nation rebuilding upon layers of history. Its plains, temples and rivers embody both scars and resilience. In their convergence of environment, culture and memory, they offer a compelling portrait of a country at once ancient and urgently alive.