Syria

Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, occupies a central position on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. Its landmass of 185 180 square kilometres supports some 25 million inhabitants, making it both the fifty-seventh most populous and the eighty-seventh largest nation. From the coastal lowlands to the eastern desert, Syria’s boundaries touch Turkey in the north, Iraq to the east and southeast, Jordan in the south, and Lebanon and Israel to the southwest. Governed—at least until recent upheavals—by a single party under prolonged emergency rule, the country divides administratively into fourteen governorates, with Damascus serving as capital and principal urban centre.

Long before the modern republic emerged, “Syria” denoted a larger region straddling successive empires. Archaeological remains at Ebla date to the third millennium BCE, and later urban complexes at Ugarit and Mari attest to early trade networks. In the seventh century CE, Damascus housed the court of the Umayyad Caliphate, marking the city as an early seat of Islamic governance. Under the Mamluk Sultanate, it served as a regional centre; thereafter it passed into Ottoman hands for more than four centuries.

Following World War I, the League of Nations placed Syria under French mandate. The French administration consolidated provinces once held by the Ottomans into a single political entity. Nationalist agitation grew through the interwar years. In April 1945, the First Syrian Republic joined the United Nations, an act that terminated the mandate in law. French forces completed their withdrawal in April 1946, and Syria obtained full de facto independence.

The early republic struggled with political instability. Between 1949 and 1971, military coups reshaped government at least six times. In 1958, Syria and Egypt formed the United Arab Republic; the union dissolved after a 1961 coup. In March 1963, a faction of the Arab Socialist Ba’ath Party seized power and governed under martial law. Internal divisions prompted further coups, notably in February 1966 and November 1970, the latter bringing Hafez al-Assad to the presidency. Over three decades, Assad entrenched a system in which key military and government roles went to members of his Alawite community. Upon his death in June 2000, his son, Bashar al-Assad, succeeded him.

In early 2011, popular protests within the Arab Spring spread into Syria. The government’s response triggered a multi-party conflict that drew in regional and global powers. By mid-2015, the Islamic State group had seized large swaths of central and eastern Syria, prompting direct intervention by several states. By late 2017, IS-held territory had largely collapsed under pressure from Kurdish-led forces, Syrian government troops and allied militias, and various foreign militaries. New political entities emerged, among them a semi-autonomous administration in the northeast. In late 2024, opposing factions briefly entered Damascus, toppling the sitting regime. As of early 2025, much of Syria’s infrastructure lies in ruin and international sanctions remain in force.

Physically, Syria comprises three broad zones. Along the Mediterranean coast, narrow plains receive winter rainfall and support olive groves and citrus orchards. Inland, a semi-arid steppe gives way to desert in the eastern governorates. The Euphrates River, Syria’s principal watercourse, runs westward from Turkey through arid plains before turning south. In the northeast, the al-Jazira plateau retains pockets of fertile soil irrigated by river tributaries; in the south, Hawran’s volcanic soils yield wheat and barley. Mountain ranges near the coast exceed 2 000 metres, capturing moisture and creating a green belt that contrasts sharply with the desert further east.

When oil surfaced in the northeast in 1956—in fields such as Rmelan and al-Suwaydiyah—the resource reshaped Syria’s export profile. By the mid-1970s, petroleum became the leading foreign-exchange earner, with fields near Deir az-Zawr linking to Iraqi deposits across the border. Natural gas emerged at Jbessa in 1940, though gas production remained secondary until recent decades. Between 2000 and 2008, annual per capita GDP grew by an average of 2.5 percent. The government sought to transition from state-led planning toward market-oriented reforms, encouraging foreign investment in tourism, services and natural gas. Yet progress proved uneven, and poverty rates hovered near 30 percent by 2005.

War reversed those modest gains. By 2012, export revenues plummeted from US $12 billion to US $4 billion. The Syrian pound lost four-fifths of its value. State budgets depended on external credit lines, chiefly from Iran, Russia and China. U.S. and EU sanctions on petroleum exports, enforced from 2012 onward, cost roughly US $400 million monthly. Islamic State seizures of phosphate mines in 2015 eliminated a remaining revenue stream. Infrastructure damage, currency collapse and sanctions left reconstruction costs approaching US $10 billion.

Before conflict, Syria’s transport network included four international airports—Damascus, Aleppo, Latakia and Qamishli—and a rail system linking major cities. Roads spanned nearly 70 000 kilometres, of which 1 100 were expressways. Inland waterways existed but lacked commercial significance. During wartime, many routes became unsafe, and cross-border rail services ceased.

Syria’s population reflects millennia of migration and settlement. Arabs constitute roughly three quarters of those still in the country; earlier census figures placed total residents at about 18.5 million (2019). The remainder includes Kurds (primarily in the northeast), Turkic-speaking communities, Assyrians and other groups. Neo-Aramaic dialects endure in Ma‘loula and neighbouring villages; classical Syriac serves liturgical functions. Kurdish, Turkish, Armenian, Circassian and Chechen minorities maintain their languages without official status. Arabic dialects—Levantine in the west, Mesopotamian in the northeast—dominate daily speech. English and French appear in education and commerce.

Religious composition once showed Sunni Muslims at nearly three-quarters of the population, Alawites and Twelver Shias around 13 percent, Christians close to 10 percent and Druze about 3 percent. In practice, Alawites have held a disproportionate share of senior military and government posts since the 1970s. Christian denominations—Greek Orthodox, Syriac Catholic, Armenian Apostolic and others—continue community life in cities and villages.

Cultural customs in Syria pivot on family, hospitality and religious observance. Social rituals include the Dabkeh dance and sword dances at weddings and festivals. Folk arts draw on Arabic, Kurdish and Aramaic traditions. Cuisine varies by region: Aleppo dishes emphasize spicy kebabs; Damascene fare highlights stuffed vegetables and robust pastries. Staples such as hummus, tabbouleh and labneh accompany flatbreads baked fresh each day. Meze platters introduce meals. Arabic coffee finds its place at breakfast and during guest receptions; arak, an anise-flavoured spirit, appears at ceremonial feasts.

Architectural heritage spans Roman theatres at Bosra and Apamea, Crusader castles like Krak des Chevaliers, and Ottoman mosques, madrasas and caravanserais. Urban fabric in Damascus and Aleppo retains medieval quarters clustered around souks and mosques. Palmyra once stood as the desert citadel of the east; after severe damage in 2015, demining and restoration have progressed slowly.

Before 2011, tourism offered growth potential: coastal resorts, pilgrimage sites and archaeological zones drew visitors. The government envisaged diversifying beyond oil into services and hospitality. War halted those plans. Some aid groups estimate that 40 percent of tourism-sector jobs vanished by mid-2015. Much of the built environment, from hotels to highways, requires repair.

Travel advice once warned against political discussions, as casual remarks on sensitive topics—Israel’s control of the Golan Heights or criticism of the ruling family—could attract unwanted attention. Begging sometimes turned aggressive near pilgrimage sites. Western dress suits urban Christian districts but may draw notice elsewhere; modest clothing eased interactions. Tap water generally met safety standards, though bottled brands enjoyed wider trust. Healthcare facilities varied in quality; expatriate physicians often served hotel guests on call.

In daily life, Syrians reserve direct criticism for private settings. Public exchanges feature raised voices and animated gestures, though these express engagement rather than anger. Hosts welcome strangers; children receive affectionate attention from adults. Social etiquette discourages beckoning with an index finger and showing the soles of one’s feet. Personal questions test Western comfort zones but arise from a desire to connect.

Women, particularly when unaccompanied, might attract unsolicited remarks; polite refusals and invoking bystanders typically sufficed to defuse unwelcome advances. Under local statutes, moral-conduct laws could lead to arrest for unmarried men and women sharing private spaces. Homosexual acts remain criminalized.

Despite recent disruptions, Syria’s long arc of history endures in its landscapes, languages and communities. Each layer—from Bronze Age ruins to Ottoman bathhouses—bears witness to successive waves of empire and migration. Once streets bustle again, neighbourhoods scattered by conflict may host gatherings in souks and squares. Olive trees planted centuries ago may still yield fruit. When stability returns, Syria’s material heritage and living traditions will stand ready to resume their place in daily life.