Tanzania

Tanzania occupies a vast swath of East Africa, a land shaped by epochs of tectonic upheaval, human migrations and colonial rivalry. Bound to Uganda in the northwest and Kenya to the northeast, it stretches southward to touch Mozambique and Malawi, while Zambia lies to its southwest. To the west, the undulating frontier meets Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo; to the east, the Indian Ocean laps a coastline that supports both fishing hamlets and the storied spice isles of Zanzibar. At nearly 948,000 square kilometres, it is Africa’s thirteenth-largest nation, its terrain ranging from coastal plains to alpine heights, from deep rift lakes to arid plateaux.

From the first stirrings of humankind, this region has been pivotal. Fossil discoveries in the Great Rift Valley attest to ancestors who walked these lands millions of years ago. In later prehistory, successive waves of people moved here: Cushitic–speaking groups akin to today’s Iraqw journeyed south from Ethiopia; Eastern Cushitic communities settled near Lake Turkana; Southern Nilotic clans, such as the Datoog, came from the borderlands of South Sudan and Ethiopia. Roughly contemporaneous with these arrivals were Bantu farmers advancing from West Africa, planting the linguistic and cultural seeds that now flourish around Lakes Victoria and Tanganyika.

By the late nineteenth century, the mainland came under German rule as part of German East Africa. Following Germany’s defeat in World War I, Britain assumed administration under a League of Nations mandate. Mainland Tanganyika gained internal self-government in 1958 and full independence on 9 December 1961. Meanwhile, the sultanate of Zanzibar—an archipelago of two main islands, Unguja (commonly called Zanzibar) and Pemba—emerged from British protection to freedom in December 1963. When a revolution on Zanzibar in January 1964 overthrew the sultanate, the two entities joined later that year, on 26 April, to form the United Republic of Tanzania. This union married Tanganyika’s continental expanse to Zanzibar’s centuries-old trading ports, enshrining a political marriage that endures today.

Dodoma, in central Tanzania, was designated the federal capital in 1973, chosen for its central location and cooler highland climate. In practice, however, Dar es Salaam—on the Indian Ocean shore—remains the nation’s bustling heart: the principal port and the hub of commerce, diplomacy and culture. The seat of government in Dodoma hosts the President’s office and the National Assembly, but much of the civil service and foreign missions remain in Dar es Salaam, perpetuating a dual-capital arrangement.

Tanzania’s political system is a presidential republic; since 1977, the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (Party of the Revolution) has dominated national politics. Despite the one-party hegemony, the country has largely avoided the civil conflicts that have scarred some of its neighbours. Across nearly six decades of independence, Tanzania has been regarded as among the continent’s most stable states, a reputation bolstered by the legacy of its first President, Julius Nyerere, whose policy of Ujamaa—collective rural development—sought to meld socialism with African traditions.

The demographic tapestry of Tanzania is rich and complex. According to the 2022 census, some 62 million people call the country home, making it the most populous nation entirely south of the equator. Roughly 70 percent still live in rural areas, though urbanization is rising: Dar es Salaam itself exceeds 4 million inhabitants, while Dodoma counts just over 400,000. Over 120 ethnic groups speak more than 100 different languages—among them Bantu tongues like Sukuma, Nyamwezi, Chagga and Haya; Cushitic languages; Nilotic dialects; and even Khoisan – related click-language variants among the Hadzabe hunter-gatherers. Swahili, promoted by Nyerere as a unifying lingua franca, functions as the national medium of daily life and governance: about 10 percent speak it as a first language and nearly 90 percent as a second. English continues in courts, diplomacy and higher education; Arabic persists around Zanzibar’s old stone towns.

Religion in Tanzania defies simple categorization. Christianity and Islam each claim substantial followings, yet African traditional beliefs remain woven into everyday practice. Many Tanzanians combine observances—attending church or mosque while honoring ancestral rituals. Official data on faith is scarce since religious affiliation has not appeared on censuses since 1967, but it is clear that spiritual life shapes communities from the highland villages to coastal fishing settlements.

Geography and climate form twin pillars of Tanzania’s natural allure. In the northeast, Mount Kilimanjaro thrusts skyward to 5,895 metres above sea level, the tallest freestanding peak on Earth. Its snow-capped dome and rugged flanks draw mountaineers from across the globe. Not far away, the Ngorongoro Highlands spread across rolling plateaux. Below them lies the Ngorongoro Crater—a collapsed caldera whose floor hosts grazing wildebeest, zebra, and lion in a wildlife spectacle that has endured for centuries.

Three of Africa’s Great Lakes touch Tanzanian soil. To the north, Lake Victoria—the world’s largest tropical lake—nurtures fertile fishing grounds. Westward, Lake Tanganyika stretches into the horizon, its depths plunging to 1,471 metres below sea level, making it the continent’s deepest freshwater body. Its clear waters sustain scores of endemic fish species found nowhere else. To the south, Lake Malawi (or Lake Nyasa) mirrors sunrises on its expansive surface, while its shoreline supports riparian communities and national parks.

Between these aquatic jewels, central Tanzania rises on a vast plateau of red earth, punctuated by farmland and savannah. Eastward, the coastal plain yields to mangrove forests and sandy beaches; offshore, the archipelago of Zanzibar, Pemba and Mafia emerges from the Indian Ocean with coral reefs, fragrant spice farms and Swahili-style stone villages. Menai Bay, off Zanzibar’s western coast, is the archipelago’s largest marine protected area, safeguarding dolphins and sea turtles.

Waterfalls and rivers crisscross the landscape. Kalambo Falls, near the Zambian border, cascades some 260 metres in a single drop, the second-highest uninterrupted waterfall in Africa. The Kalambo River itself carves gorges into the Miombo woodlands that cloak western Tanzania.

Climatic variation follows altitude and latitude. Highland areas—Kilimanjaro, the Udzungwa Mountains and the Southern Highlands—enjoy cooler temperatures: averages hover between 10 °C and 20 °C, with nights occasionally dipping toward frost. Elsewhere, temperatures rarely fall below 20 °C. The hottest months—November through February—see coastal thermometers climb into the low 30s, while the coolest span May through August. Rainfall patterns divide broadly: a long rainy season from October to April blankets the south, central and western zones, while the north and coast experience two distinct rains—October to December and again March to May—driven by the shifting Intertropical Convergence Zone. The country is occasionally buffeted by tropical cyclones, remnants of ocean storms that can reach landfall; historical records trace such events back to at least 1872.

Like much of the planet, Tanzania is feeling the effects of climate change. Rising average temperatures bring both heavier downpours—causing floods—and prolonged dry spells that threaten harvests. Coastal communities contend with sea-level rise, while inland farmers grapple with shifting rainy seasons. Recognizing these challenges, the government produced a National Adaptation Programme of Action in 2007 and a National Climate Change Strategy in 2012, aiming to bolster resilience across agriculture, water resources, health and energy sectors.

Tanzania’s biodiversity ranks among the world’s richest. About 20 percent of Africa’s warm-blooded animal species find refuge within its 21 national parks, reserves, conservation areas and marine parks—covering some 42,000 square kilometres or nearly 38 percent of the country. Elephants, lions, rhinoceros and buffalo roam the Southern Circuit; primates inhabit Gombe Stream National Park, where Jane Goodall’s chimpanzee research has unfolded since 1960. Amphibians and reptiles—over 400 species, many endemic—slither and hop through forests and wetlands. The annual wildebeest migration across the Serengeti plain remains one of nature’s grandest spectacles, as over a million beasts track the rains in search of fresh grass.

Yet conservation sits precariously alongside human needs. Indigenous and rural communities press against park borders for farmland and firewood; anti-poaching efforts battle illicit wildlife trade. In Zanzibar, marine parks work to protect coral reefs and seagrass beds even as fishermen cast nets into shrinking fish stocks.

On the economic front, Tanzania has navigated both boom and bust. Its gross domestic product reached an estimated US $71 billion nominal in 2021, or US $218 billion on a purchasing-power-parity basis, with GDP per capita around US $3,600 on PPP terms. From 2009 to 2013, per capita growth averaged 3.5 percent annually, outpacing its East African peers. The Great Recession of 2008-09 exerted only a modest drag, thanks in part to robust gold prices and limited reliance on global markets. Since then, tourism—sparked by safaris and island resorts—alongside telecommunications and banking, has driven rapid expansion: growth rates of 4.6 percent in 2022 and 5.2 percent in 2023 attest to this momentum.

Nonetheless, prosperity has been uneven. Poverty remains a stubborn barrier: over two-thirds of Tanzanians once lived on less than US $1.25 per day, though World Bank data show a decline from 34.4 percent in 2007 to 25.7 percent by 2020. Food insecurity, particularly in rural regions, stems from limited infrastructure, dependence on rain-fed agriculture and scant access to credit or modern farming inputs. The Global Hunger Index, once “alarming” at 42 points in 2000, improved to 23.2 by the mid-2010s, yet continues to highlight disparities, especially for children’s nutrition.

Agriculture underpins daily life for roughly two-thirds of the population, supplying subsistence crops and cash exports—coffee, tea, cashews, tobacco and sisal. Mining and energy form growing sectors: gold, natural gas and gemstones contribute export earnings. The government has pursued foreign investment in infrastructure, from ports to power plants, though challenges persist in regulatory clarity and fiscal management.

Trade partnerships have diversified over time. As of 2017, India, Vietnam, South Africa, Switzerland and China topped Tanzania’s export destinations, with imports arriving mainly from India, Switzerland, Saudi Arabia, China and the United Arab Emirates. Oil and machinery, pharmaceuticals and consumer goods populate the import list; raw materials and agricultural products dominate exports.

Transport infrastructure remains uneven. Roads carry over 75 percent of freight and 80 percent of passenger traffic, but of the 181,000 kilometres of highways and rural tracks, many fall into disrepair. The Cairo-Cape Town Highway threads through northern Tanzania, linking it to broader continental networks. Rail service once bound Dar es Salaam to central and northern regions, and via TAZARA to Zambia’s copper belt, but reliability and safety have suffered from underinvestment. In urban Dar es Salaam, the Dar Rapid Transit (DART) system—a bus-based mass transit project—launched operations in 2016, easing congestion for suburban commuters. Air travel spreads through four international airports and over 120 smaller airstrips, yet terminal facilities and navigation aids often lag in modernization. Domestic carriers, including Air Tanzania and Precision Air, bridge remote destinations to the main cities.

Politically, Tanzania balances the union government with semi-autonomous Zanzibar governance. Zanzibar’s constitution vests local non–union matters in its House of Representatives, alongside a president and two vice-presidents—one drawn from opposition ranks to ensure power-sharing. The Revolutionary Council, led by the president, wields executive authority locally. Mainland Tanzania comprises thirty-one administrative regions—mikoa—further subdivided into 195 districts. Urban districts gain city, municipal or town councils, while rural areas organize into village councils and hamlets. Notably, Dar es Salaam’s city council overlaps three municipal councils, coordinating services across sprawling suburbs.

Public services reflect both progress and gaps. Primary education in Swahili has near-universal reach, yet secondary schools, taught in English, remain less accessible. Health indicators have improved since independence, with child mortality falling from 335 deaths per 1,000 births in 1964 to 62 per 1,000 by the early 2020s, yet maternal health and rural clinics still require investment.

Fertility remains high: government surveys in 2010–12 recorded an average of 5.4 children per woman, with rural areas exceeding six births on average. Over one-third of women aged 45–49 had borne eight or more children. Such demographic momentum ensures a youthful society, where under-15s once comprised over 40 percent of the population; today, young people still dominate, driving demands for education, employment and housing.

Social cohesion rests on a delicate blend of identity. Although the vast majority of Tanzanians trace lineage to indigenous African groups, communities of Indian, Arab and European descent contribute to commerce and culture, especially in coastal towns. The 1964 Zanzibar Revolution was a grim reminder of how ethnic tensions could erupt: in its aftermath, thousands of Arabs and Indians were killed or fled. Since then, the government has sought to reinforce national unity, even as memories linger and economic disparities persist.

Tanzania’s constitution guarantees rights and prescribes multiparty elections, yet the ruling party’s dominance shapes political life. Civil society organizations and an independent press contribute critical voices. Religious tolerance is enshrined, and interfaith cooperation is common. Harassment of minority groups—such as attacks on people with albinism driven by witchcraft beliefs—remains a serious human-rights concern; successive governments have outlawed harmful witch doctor practices, but enforcement remains uneven.

In education and culture, Tanzania celebrates its diversity. The University of Dar es Salaam and other institutions nurture scholars in fields from linguistics to environmental science. Artists draw on folk traditions—Tinga Tinga painting, taarab music and Makonde woodcarving—to engage both local audiences and international collectors. Annual festivals showcase Swahili poetry, dance and film, while museums in Stone Town preserve the island’s Omani-Arab heritage.

As the nation charts its course, it must balance growth with conservation, unity with diversity, tradition with modernization. Tanzania’s strengths—its stable governance, its wealth of languages and customs, its staggering natural beauty—offer a firm foundation. Yet pressures from climate change, inequality and demographic change test the resilience of its institutions. In this landscape of plateaux and peaks, lakes and plains, humans and wildlife coexist in a complex tapestry—one whose threads stretch back millions of years and whose pattern unfolds anew with each generation.

In every village and city, the lived reality bears traces of that deep past: children fishing on Lake Victoria’s shores, nomadic herders grazing cattle beneath Kilimanjaro’s shadow, women harvesting maize on the plateau, tourists scanning the savannah for lions. All are part of an ever-evolving story, one of continuities and contradictions, of adaptation and aspiration. Tanzania stands today as a testament to endurance—of landscapes and of peoples—embracing both the challenges of tomorrow and the legacies of a time-worn earth.