Bolivia

Bolivia’s climate varies dramatically from one ecoregion to another, from the tropics in the eastern llanos to a polar climate in the western Andes. Summers are hot and humid in the east and dry in the west. Precipitation often changes temperatures, humidity, winds, air pressure and evaporation, resulting in very different climates in different regions. When the climate phenomenon known as El Niño occurs, it causes major changes in weather. Winters are very cold in the west, and it snows in the mountainous regions, while windy days are more frequent in the western regions. Autumn is dry in non-tropical regions.

• Llanos. A humid tropical climate with an average temperature of 30°C (86°F). Winds from the Amazon rainforest cause heavy rainfall. In May, there is little rainfall due to dry winds and most days have clear skies. However, southerly winds, called surazos, can bring cooler temperatures that last for several days.
• Altiplano. Polar desert climate, with strong and cold winds. The average temperature is between 15 and 20°C. At night, temperatures drop drastically to just above 0°C, while during the day it is dry and solar radiation is high. Ground frosts occur every month and snow is common.
• Valleys and yungas. Temperate climate. Moist northeasterly winds are driven into the mountains, making this region very humid and rainy. Temperatures are cooler at higher altitudes. Snow occurs at altitudes of 2,000 metres.
• Chaco. Subtropical, semi-arid climate. Rainy and humid in January and the rest of the year, with hot days and cool nights.

Bolivia is located in the central zone of South America, between 57°26′-69°38’W and 9°38′-22°53’S. With an area of 1,098,581 square kilometres, Bolivia is the 28th largest country in the world and the fifth largest in South America, stretching from the central Andes through part of the Gran Chaco to the Amazon. The geographical centre of the country is the so-called Puerto Estrella (“starry port”) on the Río Grande, in the province of Ñuflo de Chávez, department of Santa Cruz.

The country’s geography presents a great diversity of terrains and climatic zones. Bolivia has a high biodiversity, considered one of the highest in the world, as well as several eco-regions with ecological sub-units such as the Altiplano, the tropical rainforests (including the Amazon rainforest), the dry valleys and the Chiquitania, which is a tropical savanna. These areas have huge differences in altitude, from an altitude of 6,542 metres above sea level in the Nevado Sajama to almost 70 metres along the Paraguay River. Although the country is geographically diverse, Bolivia has remained a landlocked country since the Pacific War.

Bolivia can be divided into three physiographic regions:

• The Andean region, in the southwest, represents 28% of the national territory and covers 307,603 square kilometres (118,766 square miles). This area lies above 3,000 metres (10,000 feet) and is situated between two major Andean ranges, the Cordillera Occidental (“Western Range”) and the Cordillera Central (“Central Range”), with some of the highest points in the Americas, such as Nevado Sajama at 6,542 metres (20,000 feet) and Illimani at 6,462 metres (20,000 feet). Also in the Cordillera Central is Lake Titicaca, the highest commercially navigable lake in the world and the largest lake in South America; the lake is shared with Peru. This region also includes the Altiplano and the Salar de Uyuni, the world’s largest salt lake and an important source of lithium.
• The sub-Andean region, located in the centre and south of the country, is an intermediate region between the Altiplano and the eastern llanos (plains); this region represents 13% of the Bolivian territory and covers 142,815 km2 (55,141 sq mi). It includes the Bolivian valleys and the Yungas region. It is characterised by its agricultural activities and temperate climate.
• The Llanos region, in the north-east, covers 59% of the territory with 648,163 km2 (250,257 sq mi). It is located north of the Cordillera Central and extends from the foothills of the Andes to the Paraguay River. It is a region of flat lands and small plateaus, all covered by vast tropical forests that are home to enormous biodiversity. The region is less than 400 metres above sea level.

Bolivia has three basins:

• The first is the Amazon Basin, also known as the Northern Basin (724,000 km2 (280,000 sq mi)/66% of the territory). The rivers in this basin generally have large meanders that form lakes, such as Lake Murillo in the department of Pando. The most important Bolivian tributary of the Amazon basin is the 2,000 km long Mamoré River, which flows north to its confluence with the 1,113 km long Beni River, the second most important river in the country. The Beni River, together with the Madeira River, forms the main tributary of the Amazon. From east to west, the basin is formed by other important rivers, such as the Madre de Dios River, the Orthon River, the Abuna River, the Yata River and the Guaporé River. The most important lakes are Lake Rogaguado, Lake Rogagua and Lake Jara.
• The second is the Rio de la Plata basin, also known as the Southern basin (229,500 km2 (88,600 sq mi)/21% of the territory). The tributaries of this basin are generally less abundant than those that make up the Amazon basin. The Rio de la Plata basin is formed mainly by the Paraguay River, the Pilcomayo River and the Bermejo River. The most important lakes are Lake Uberaba and Lake Mandioré, both located in the Bolivian marshes.
• The third basin is the central basin, which is an endoreic basin (145,081 square kilometres / 13% of the territory). The Altiplano has a large number of lakes and rivers that do not flow into any ocean because they are enclosed by the Andes. The most important river is the Río Desaguadero, with a length of 436 km, the longest river in the Altiplano; it has its source in Lake Titicaca and then flows southeast to Lake Poopó. The basin is then formed by Lake Titicaca, Lake Poopó, the Desaguadero River and large salt flats, including the Salar de Uyuni and Lake Coipasa.

Conservation of water supply

Deforestation in upper river basins has led to environmental problems, including soil erosion and declining water quality. An innovative project designed to address this situation involves landowners in upstream areas being paid by downstream water users to maintain the forests. Landowners will receive $20 to preserve trees, avoid pollution from livestock, and improve biodiversity and forest carbon on their land. They receive $30, which they use to buy a beehive to offset the preservation of two acres of water forest for five years. The income from honey per hectare of forest is $5 per year. In five years, the landowner has therefore sold $50 worth of honey. The project is implemented by Fundación Natura Bolivia and Rare Conservation, with support from the Climate & Development Knowledge Network.

Geology

The geology of Bolivia includes a variety of lithologies and different tectonic and sedimentary environments. At the synoptic scale, the geological units coincide with the topographic units. Essentially, the country is divided into a mountainous western zone influenced by Pacific subduction processes and an eastern plain with stable platforms and shields.

Biodiversity

Bolivia, with its enormous diversity of organisms and ecosystems, is one of the “like-minded megadiverse countries”.

Bolivia’s different altitudes, ranging from 90 to 6,542 metres above sea level, allow for great biological diversity. Bolivia’s territory includes four types of biomes, 32 ecological regions and 199 ecosystems. In this geographical area there are several parks and nature reserves, such as the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, the Madidi National Park, the Tunari National Park, the Eduardo Avaroa Andean National Wildlife Reserve and the Kaa-Iya del Gran Chaco National Park and Integrated Management Natural Area, among others.

Bolivia has more than 17,000 species of seed plants, including more than 1,200 species of ferns, 1,500 species of Marchantiophyta and mosses, and at least 800 species of fungi. In addition, there are over 3,000 species of medicinal plants. Bolivia is considered the country of origin of species such as peppers and chillies, peanuts, common beans, yucca and several species of palm trees. Bolivia also naturally produces more than 4,000 varieties of potatoes.

Bolivia has more than 2,900 species of animals, including 398 mammals, more than 1,400 birds (about 14% of the world’s known birds, making it the sixth most diverse country in terms of bird species), 204 amphibians, 277 reptiles and 635 fish, all of which are freshwater, as Bolivia is a landlocked country. There are also more than 3,000 species of butterflies and more than 60 domestic animals.

Bolivia has drawn worldwide attention to its “Law of the Rights of Mother Earth”, which gives nature the same rights as humans.

According to the last two censuses of the Bolivian National Institute of Statistics (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, INE), the population increased from 8,274,325 (of which 4,123,850 were men and 4,150,475 women) in 2001 to 10,027,254 in 2012.

Over the last fifty years, the Bolivian population has tripled, reaching a population growth rate of 2.25%. The population growth in the periods between the censuses (1950-1976 and 1976-1992) was about 2.05%, while in the last period, 1992-2001, it reached 2.74% per year.

About 62.43% of Bolivians live in urban areas, while the remaining 37.57% live in rural areas. The majority of the population (70%) is concentrated in the departments of La Paz, Santa Cruz and Cochabamba. In the Andean region of the Altiplano, the departments of La Paz and Oruro have the largest share of the population; in the Valley region, the departments of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca; and in the Llanos region, the departments of Santa Cruz and Beni. At the national level, the population density is 8.49, with significant variations between 0.8 (Pando department) and 26.2 (Cochabamba department).

The largest population centre is located in the so-called “central axis” and in the Llanos region. Bolivia has a young population. According to the 2011 census, 59% of the population is between 15 and 59 years old, and 39% is under 15 years old. Almost 60% of the population is under 25 years old.

Genetics

According to a genetic study of Bolivians, the averages of Amerindian, European and African ancestry are 86%, 12.5% and 1.5% respectively for individuals from La Paz and 76.8%, 21.4% and 1.8% for individuals from Chuquisaca.

Ethnicity

Bolivia’s ethnic composition is diverse. There are about three dozen indigenous groups that together account for about half of the Bolivian population – the largest proportion of indigenous people in Latin America. The exact figures vary depending on the wording of the question on ethnicity and the response options available. In the 2001 census, for example, there was no ‘mestizo’ response option, so a much higher proportion of respondents identified themselves as belonging to one of the available indigenous ethnic groups. According to a 2009 estimate, the proportion of mestizos (a mixture of whites and Indians) was 68%, indigenous 20%, white 5%, cholo 2%, black 1%, other 1%, while 3% did not specify. 44% of respondents classified themselves as belonging to an indigenous group, mainly Quechua or Aymara.

The indigenous peoples, also called “originarios” (“natives” or “originals”) and more rarely Amerindians, may be Andean, such as the Aymara and Quechua (who formed the ancient Inca empire), concentrated in the western departments of La Paz, Potosí, Oruro, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. There is also a large ethnic population in the east, including the Chiquitano, Chane, Guaraní and Moxos, who live in the departments of Santa Cruz, Beni, Tarija and Pando.

Mestizos are spread throughout the country and represent 26% of the Bolivian population. Most people embrace their mestizo identity while identifying with one or more indigenous cultures.

Whites represented about 14% of the population in 2006 and are generally concentrated in the largest cities: La Paz, Santa Cruz de la Sierra and Cochabamba, but also in some smaller cities such as Tarija. In the department of Santa Cruz, there are several dozen German-speaking Mennonite settlements, with a total population of about 40,000 (in 2012).

The Afro-Bolivians, descendants of African slaves who arrived during the Spanish Empire, live in the department of La Paz and are mainly found in the provinces of Nor Yungas and Sud Yungas. Slavery was abolished in Bolivia in 1831.

There are also large communities of Japanese (14,000) and Chinese (4,600).

There are a small number of European citizens from Germany, France, Italy and Portugal, as well as from other American countries, such as Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, the United States, Paraguay, Peru, Mexico and Venezuela, among others. There are important Peruvian colonies in La Paz, El Alto and Santa Cruz de la Sierra.

Indigenous peoples

The indigenous peoples of Bolivia can be divided into two categories of ethnic groups: Andean peoples, located on the Andean Altiplano and in the valley region, and lowland groups, inhabiting the warmer regions of central and eastern Bolivia, including the valleys of the department of Cochabamba, the Amazon basin areas north of the department of La Paz, and the lowland departments of Beni, Pando, Santa Cruz and Tarija (including the Gran Chaco region in the southeast of the country). A large number of Andean peoples have also migrated and formed Quechua, Aymara and intercultural communities in the lowlands.

• Ethnic groups in the Andes
  • The Aymara people. They live in the highlands of the departments of La Paz, Oruro and Potosí, as well as in a few small areas near the tropical lowlands.
  • The Quechua people. They live mainly in the valleys of Cochabamba and Chuquisaca. They also live in some mountainous regions of Potosí and Oruro. They are divided into different Quechua nations, such as the Tarabucos, Ucumaris, Chalchas, Chaquies, Yralipes, Tirinas, among others.
  • The people of Uru
• Eastern Lowland ethnic groups
  • Guaraníes. Includes the Guarayos, Pausernas, Sirionos, Chiriguanos, Wichí, Chulipis, Taipetes, Tobas and Yuquis.
  • Tacanas: consists of Lecos, Chimanes, Araonas and Maropas.
  • Panos : consists of chacobos, caripunas, sinabos, capuibos and guacanaguas.
  • Aruacos: includes apolistas, baures, moxos, chané, movimas, cayabayas, carabecas, paiconecas or paucanacas.
  • Chapacuras: consists of Itenez or More, Chapacuras, Sansinonianos, Canichanas, Itonamas, Yuracares, Guatoses and Chiquitos.
  • Botocudos: Composed of Bororos and Otuquis.
  • Zamucos: Made up of ayoreos.

Religion

Bolivia is a secular state enshrined in the Constitution, which guarantees freedom of religion and the independence of government from religion.”

According to the 2001 census conducted by the National Institute of Statistics of Bolivia, 78% of the population is Roman Catholic, followed by 19% Protestants and 3% non-religious.

The Association of Religion Data Archives (based on the World Christian Database) notes that in 2010, 92.5% of Bolivians identified as Christian (all denominations), 3.1% identified with an indigenous religion, 2.2% identified as Baha’i, 1.9% identified as agnostic, and all other groups were 0.1% or less.

A large part of the indigenous population adheres to various traditional beliefs shaped by inculturation or syncretism with Christianity. These include the cult of Pachamama, the “Mother Earth”. Devotion to the Virgin of Copacabana, the Virgin of Urkupiña and the Virgin of Socavón is also an important feature. There are also important Aymara communities near Lake Titicaca that have a strong devotion to the Apostle James. Among the deities venerated in Bolivia are Ekeko, the Aymaran god of abundance and prosperity, whose feast day is celebrated every 24 January, and Tupá, a god of the Guaraní people.

Bolivia has 37 official languages, of which Spanish (often called Castellano), Quechua and Aymara are the most important. In rural areas, many people do not speak Spanish. Nevertheless, you should be able to get by with some basic knowledge of Castellano. Bolivia is one of the best places to learn or practice Spanish because the accent is very clean and deliberate. There are many opportunities to learn Spanish in Bolivia, and they are usually very good (the programme often includes a very good element of homestay).

Bolivia has three mobile phone providers, Entel, Tigo and Viva. All three have outlets in virtually every neighbourhood of the major cities. Internet cafes are becoming rarer with the proliferation of smartphones making internet access more accessible. However, you can still find a cybercafé if you are looking, they usually cost around 3Bs/hour, or about $0.50 per hour.

There are still traditional public phones, but you can also make local calls for 1Bs ($0.15) from mobile phones in kiosks.

If you are staying for a while, you should consider buying SIM cards for your phones. They are quite cheap and you get good network coverage in all the major cities. Entel sells cheap international calling options for its SIM cards. For example, you can buy 10 minutes for Bs20 (to be used during the day, they will be automatically disconnected after expiration). You will need to register the SIM card with a local telecommunications office. You will need a photocopy of your passport and the mobile phone you will be using.

In 2012, Bolivia’s gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $27.43 billion at the official exchange rate and $56.14 billion at purchasing power parity. Economic growth was estimated at about 5.2% and inflation at about 6.9%. Bolivia was ranked in the “repression” category in the Heritage Foundation’s 2010 Index of Economic Freedom. Despite a series of mainly political setbacks, the Morales government stimulated growth between 2006 and 2009, which was the highest in the last 30 years. This growth was accompanied by a moderate decline in inequality. By 2012, a budget surplus of 1.7% (GDP) had been achieved, and the government has been running surpluses since the Morales administration, reflecting prudent economic management.

A major blow to the Bolivian economy was the sharp drop in the price of tin in the early 1980s, which affected one of Bolivia’s main sources of income and one of the country’s most important mining industries. Since 1985, the Bolivian government has implemented a broad programme of macroeconomic stabilisation and structural reform aimed at maintaining price stability, creating the conditions for sustainable growth and alleviating shortages. A major reform of the customs system has significantly improved transparency in this area. Parallel legislative reforms have introduced liberal market policies, notably in the hydrocarbon and telecommunications sectors, which encourage private investment. Foreign investors are given national treatment.

In April 2000, Hugo Banzer, then president of Bolivia, signed a contract with Aguas del Tunari, a private consortium, to operate and improve the water supply in Bolivia’s third largest city, Cochabamba. Shortly afterwards, the company tripled water rates in that city, leading to protests and riots among those who could no longer afford clean water. In the context of Bolivia’s economic collapse and growing national unrest over the state of the economy, the Bolivian government was forced to withdraw the water contract.

Bolivia has the second largest natural gas reserves in South America. The government has a long-term purchase agreement to sell natural gas to Brazil until 2019. The government held a binding referendum on the hydrocarbon law in 2005.

The US Geological Survey estimates that Bolivia has 5.4 million cubic metres of lithium, or 50-70% of the world’s reserves. However, mining would disrupt the country’s salt flats (known as the Salar de Uyuni), an important natural feature that boosts tourism in the region. The government does not want to destroy this unique natural landscape in order to meet the growing global demand for lithium. On the other hand, the government aims for sustainable lithium extraction. This project is being carried out by the state-owned company “Recursos Evaporíticos”, a subsidiary of COMIBOL.

At one time, the Bolivian government relied heavily on foreign aid to finance development projects and pay public personnel. At the end of 2002, the government owed $4.5 billion to foreign creditors, of which $1.6 billion was owed to other governments and most of the balance to multilateral development banks. Most payments to other governments have been rescheduled several times since 1987 through the Paris Club. External creditors have been willing to do so because the Bolivian government has generally met the monetary and fiscal targets of IMF programmes since 1987, although economic crises have undermined Bolivia’s normally strong record. In 2013, however, foreign aid represents only a fraction of the national budget, thanks to tax revenues derived mainly from profitable natural gas exports to Brazil and Argentina.

Revenues from tourism have become increasingly important. The tourism industry in Bolivia has been developing gradually since about 1990.

The following nationalities do not require a visa for short stays of less than 90 days as a tourist: Andorra, Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Croatia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Ecuador, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Mexico, Monaco, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Turkey, Uruguay, Vatican City and Venezuela.

Since 30 July 2014, Israelis have been required to have a visa for Bolivia, as the Morales government ended the visa agreement between the two countries.

Most people who require a tourist visa can obtain one on entry, with the exception of the following nationalities: Afghanistan, Angola, Bhutan, Cambodia, Chad, East Timor, Indonesia, Iraq, Libya, Pakistan, Nigeria, Somalia, Sudan, USA, Yemen and those from the West Bank and Gaza Strip. However, in urgent and special circumstances, foreign nationals from this group may obtain a visa at the port of entry. US citizens are normally issued a triple-entry visa, valid for 3 entries per year over a 5-year period.

Note that all business travellers and people who want to stay for more than 90 days per year must apply for a visa in advance.

Unless you are less than one year old, you will need a yellow fever vaccination certificate to apply for a visa.

If entering by land from Peru, tourist visas for US citizens can be requested at the border. Officially, a visa application form, a copy of the passport, a copy of the yellow fever vaccine, a copy of the exit itinerary from Bolivia, proof of economic solvency, a hotel reservation or written invitation and a passport photo (4 cm x 4 cm) are required. A fee of $135 is also required, payable in cash. Old or marked tickets are not accepted. Photocopiers are available at the border crossing.

Flying is the most obvious way to get to Bolivia. The main airports are in La Paz in the west of the country and Santa Cruz in the east. The plan for getting there should be based primarily on the purpose of your visit to the country; you should bear in mind that La Paz receives the most visitors because of the immense culture and heritage of the Incas and other indigenous cultures of the Andean region, and therefore from La Paz it is easier to get to the ruins of Tiwanaku, the carnival in Oruro, the mines of Potosí, Uyuni, Lake Titicaca, the Yungas Valley and the Andes; As La Paz is the seat of government, all foreign embassies and organisations are based in the city, which is very useful in case of emergency. On the other hand, Santa Cruz, with its warmer climate, could be a good place for business trips to visit other tourist alternatives, such as Misiones, Noel Kempff Mercado National Park or the eastern cities. There are also some foreign consulates in Santa Cruz. But don’t forget that the southern and central cities of Bolivia, such as Cochabamba, Tarija and Sucre, also offer a rich experience. There are several ways to reach these cities from La Paz or Santa Cruz.

From Europe

Regular flights from Madrid (Barajas) to Viru Viru in Santa Cruz are offered by companies such as Boliviana de Aviación and Air Europa; costs can range from 800-1200€ to higher prices, depending on class and duration.

From Latin America

Other airlines fly to Bolivia from other Latin American countries, including LAN from Santiago via Iquique and from Lima. It is now possible to fly with Amaszonas between Cusco and La Paz, allowing round trips, entering Bolivia from Peru via Lake Titicaca and returning to Peru. TAM Mercosur operates flights from São Paulo, Brazil, and Buenos Aires via Asunción. Copa Airlines has started services to Santa Cruz from Panama City. Gol Airlines and Aerolineas Argentinas also operate direct flights to Santa Cruz.

From the United States

There are departures from Miami to La Paz and Santa Cruz with American Airlines. Once you have booked your international flight, it is much easier and cheaper to arrange your domestic flights from the point of departure.

In June 2014, parts of the Bolivian railway network were taken over by the Chilean company La Empresa Ferroviaria Andina S.A. (FCA). Many interrupted passenger services appear to have resumed. See the FCA timetable for more details.

• From Brazil, a train connects the Bolivian border town of Puerto Quijarro to Santa Cruz. The fast train and the slow train take 13 and 17 hours respectively.
• From Argentina, a train connects the Bolivian border town of Villazón (opposite La Quiaca) to Uyuni (9-12 hours). Tupiza is in the middle of the road, 4 hours from Villazón.
• From Chile, a train runs from Calama to Uyuni (13 or 18 hours). As this is a freight train with a passenger car attached, expect a rough ride through some extraordinary scenery. (The Calama – Antofagasta section of the railway does not appear to have a passenger service.) The other transnational railway with Chile, which ends in Arica, also does not carry passengers.

It is common for tourists to cross a land border in northeast Chile and southwest Bolivia.

Note that only about 5% of all roads in Bolivia are paved. However, most of the main roads between the major cities (e.g. Santa Cruz, La Paz, Cochabamba, Sucre) are paved. An off-road vehicle is highly recommended if you are travelling on the flatter Altiplano. Be aware that in the mountainous regions, traffic sometimes changes sides of the road. This is to give the driver a better view of the dangerous slopes.

An International Driving Permit is required, but *most* European or American driving licences are accepted. There are frequent police checks on the road and tolls to pay for road use.

There are several ways to travel by bus from Argentina to Bolivia. There are websites where you can check timetables online [www], but as always in Bolivia, it’s a good idea to check in advance. There is also a bus from Juliaca and Puno in Peru to Copacabana.

Transport strikes (bloqueos) are not uncommon in Bolivia, so keep an eye on local news. Strikes often affect local taxis as well as long-distance buses; airlines are not usually affected. Do not try to go around or through roadblocks (usually made of stones, burning tyres or wood). Strikers may throw stones at your vehicle if you try to pass the blockade. Violence has sometimes been reported. Many strikes last only a day or two. There is a government website with a live map showing which roads are closed or affected by landslides.

Bus travel in Bolivia is a pleasant and cheap way to see the beautiful countryside while travelling to your destination. Unfortunately, buses often only run at night. Remember that roads are sometimes blocked due to demonstrations, often for several days. So check with several companies at the terminal if you hear of blockades, unless you are prepared to sleep on the bus for a few days. Bus travel is usually fairly inexpensive. Estimate that it will cost you about US$1 per hour of travel (it is easier to find travel times online than actual prices). Prices vary according to supply and demand. Sometimes you can get a good deal if you wait until the last minute to buy. Destinations are constantly advertised at major bus stations to persuade potential passengers to take their bus route.

On average, the bus companies are not very good, but some are really bad. It is recommended not to travel with Urus, as they are less safe than the others and have many stops that unnecessarily lengthen the journey.

Flights within Bolivia are fast and fairly cheap. BoA connects most major cities.

• Amaszonas, Av. Saavedra Nº 1649, Miraflores, La Paz, +591 2 222-0848, email: info@amaszonas.com. The most popular route is from La Paz to Rurrenabaque, but they also fly to Uyuni, Trinidad, Guayaramerin, Riberalta, Cobija, San Borja, Cochabamba and Santa Cruz. Airfares can be found in the “tarifas” section of their website, see below. Their Santa Cruz office is located at El Trompillo airport.

• Boliviana de Aviación – BoA – the national airline of Bolivia. Offers low cost travel between the main cities in Bolivia. You can book your tickets online or at the BoA offices in Santa Cruz, La Paz or Cochabamba. Main office in Cochabamba, Calle Jordán #202 esq. Nataniel Aguirre. E-mail: ventasweb@boa.bo Phone: +591 901 10 50 10 fax: +591 4 4116477
• Ecojet is a relatively new airline that operates the usual metropolitan routes, but also offers flights to Riberalta and Guayaramerin in Bení. The call centre can be reached on +591 901 10 50 55 (not free of charge).
• TAM (Transporte Aéreo Marília), Montes n 738, La Paz, +591 3 352-9669. This airline is one of the best organised and most reliable. Their office in Santa Cruz is located in El Trompillo airport, from where all their planes depart. They operate daily flights between La Paz, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz and Sucre. Of the three domestic airlines (AeroSur, BOA and TAM), they are generally the cheapest. Weight restrictions are 15kg for checked luggage and 3kg for hand luggage. They take luggage heavier than this for 5 Bs. per kilo.

On some routes, the roads are in such poor condition that the train becomes the alternative of choice. The trains are more comfortable than you might expect, with reclining seats for example. The journey from Oruro to Uyuni is particularly pleasant, with the train literally crossing an Andean lake on the way. The train is particularly suitable for trips to the Salar de Uyuni and the Pantanal.

From La Paz it is a three hour bus ride to Oruro to catch the train. It is best to book your tickets a few days before your trip. In La Paz, the booking office is located at number 494 Fernando Guachalla, at the corner with Sánchez Lima (between Plaza del Estudiante and Plaza Abaroa). The main stops are Uyuni, Tupiza and Villazon, on the Argentine border. Travel time here. [www] .

Between Santa Cruz and the Pantanal, it is less complicated to organise a trip. Just go to the Bimodal terminal in Santa Cruz, or to the train station at the border of Puerto Quijarro. The train is also convenient for travel to the Jesuit missions. Check the website [www] for timetables.

For longer journeys between places and towns not served by buses, shared taxis are common. Shared taxis are not safe for tourists, especially for women travelling alone.

• Altiplano (La Paz, Oruro, Potosí)
• Sub-Andean Bolivia (Cochabamba, Chuquisaca, Tarija)
• Tropical lowlands (Santa Cruz, Beni, Pando)

• La Paz – the administrative capital and seat of government
• Cochabamba – the third largest city in the country, with a pleasant, temperate climate.
• Oruro – famous for its carnival
• Potosí – once one of the richest cities in the world thanks to its silver mines.
• Santa Cruz – the second largest and richest city in Bolivia
• Sucre – the constitutional capital and seat of the judiciary
• Tarija – The wine festival takes place every year in Tarija.

• Chacaltaya and Huayna Potosi – the highest ski resort in the world and the most popular mountain climb in Bolivia.
• Isla del Sol – Located in the southern part of Lake Titicaca. An isolated island in the middle of the lake. Stunning landscapes and ancient ruins from the Inca period make this place a place of tranquillity.
• Jesuit Missions of the Chiquitos – six isolated towns in the Gran Chaco founded by the Jesuits in the 17th and 18th centuries. They were founded in the 17th and 18th centuries. The area where the towns are located is called Chiquitania and is worth visiting not only for the missions but also for the natural beauty.
• Madidi National Park – located a few kilometres north of Apolo, is one of the largest biodiversity reserves in the world. Its humid tropical climate has produced one of the most forested areas in Bolivia.
• Noel Kempff Mercado National Park – an incredibly remote and even more incredibly beautiful Amazonian park, home to the stunning Cataratas Arcoiris waterfall.
• Quime – A lively and friendly mountain village surrounded by the high mountains of the Cordillera Quimsa Cruz, between La Paz and Cochabamba, with mines, waterfalls, indigenous cloud forest and 31 Aimara Indian communities. Exploration routes. The easiest to reach from the cities in the Bolivian valley.
• Sajama National Park – beautiful Andean scenery and Bolivia’s highest mountain, Nevada Sajama.
• Salar de Uyuni – spectacular scenery along the world’s largest salt desert
• Sorata – a destination for hikers, also close to the San Pedro caves, which contain a beautiful lagoon.
• Tiwanaku – Ancient Ruins, UNESCO World Heritage Site
• The Yungas region can be reached by bike on the Camino de Muerte, the world’s most dangerous route through spectacular jungle cliffs, or on foot on the El Choro trek, which crosses the climates from La Paz to Coroico.

For longer journeys between places and towns not served by buses, shared taxis are common. Shared taxis are not safe for tourists, especially for women travelling alone.

Bolivia has six UNESCO World Heritage sites. In the eastern department of Santa Cruz are the Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, the Inca site El Fuerte in Samaipata and the Jesuit missions of the Chiquitos. Near the capital is Tiwanaku, an archaeological site with the remains of a pre-Inca city. Finally, there are Sucre and Potosí, two cities founded by the Spaniards in the 16th century.

Bolivia also has the world’s largest salt desert, the Salar de Uyuni, part of Lake Titicaca with the Isla del Sol, and is in the middle of the Andes – with peaks of over 6,000 metres.

• The Death Road: from La Cumbre to Coroico. A 64 km mountain bike tour where you can see the diversity of Bolivia. From La Cumbre at 5000mts, in a cold and windy environment, to Coroico, in a humid and tropical environment.
• Explore the provinces: Bolivia is a place to explore, it is still largely untouched. The people in the countryside are friendly. There are hundreds of places in Bolivia that are not on the map and are far more exciting than what the travel agencies and guidebooks offer. In the department of La Paz, for example, you can easily take transportation to places like Pelechuco, the eastern shore of Lake Titicaca, Achacachi, Isla del Sol or Quime….. not to mention a host of other villages and small towns. The free government travel agencies at Plaza Estudiantes or Prado can help you find and inform you about transport.

Bolivian cuisine could be described as the original “meat and potatoes” – the latter (called papas by the Quechua) were first cultivated by the Incas before spreading around the world. The most common meat is beef, but chicken and llama are also readily available. Pork is relatively common. Frying (chicharron) is a common method of preparing all types of meat, and fried chicken is a popular fast food; its smell sometimes permeates the streets of Bolivian cities. Guinea pig (cuy) and rabbit (conejo) are eaten in rural areas, although they can sometimes be found in urban restaurants. A common condiment served with Bolivian meals is ll’ajwa, a spicy sauce similar to Mexican salsa.

The almuerzo is a very popular lunchtime meal that usually consists of a starter (entrada), soup, main course (segundo) and dessert. Take a walk down many streets in Bolivian cities and you will see the menu of the day in every restaurant. Most have at least two main courses to choose from. Almuerzos cost between Bs. 15 and 25, depending on the restaurant or “pension”.

Some notable Bolivian dishes:

• Pique a lo macho – pieces of meat grilled in a lightly spiced sauce with tomatoes and onions, over potatoes
• Silpancho – beef pounded into a thin, plate-sized patty, served on a bed of rice and potatoes, with a fried egg on top (similar to Wiener Schnitzel).
• Picante de Pollo – the degree of spiciness depends on the cook/chef.
• Fritanga (Bolivian fried pork)

Street food and snacks :

• Anticucho – grilled beef hearts on a skewer, served with potatoes and a spicy peanut sauce.
• Salchipapa – thinly sliced sausage fried with potatoes
• Choripan – Chorizo (spicy sausage) sandwich, served with grilled onions and lots of sauce.

The mid-morning snack usually consists of one or more meat-filled buns:

• Salteña – A baked bun filled with meat and potatoes in a slightly sweet or spicy sauce. Be careful when you take a bite, as the sauce drips everywhere!
• Tucumana – Like a Salteña, but fried.
• Empanada – Similar to a Saltena, often filled with cheese and meat.
• Cuñape – Small bread filled with cheese, similar to the Brazilian Pão de Queijo. The bread is made from cassava flour.

Many people also start the day with a fruit tea:

• Ensalada de frutas – Several different fruits chopped in a bowl with yoghurt. Very filling. Some of the stands have honey, nuts or gelatine added if you wish.

Vegetarians will find decent to very good options in the country’s gringos. But the markets also offer good vegetarian options (mainly potatoes, rice, a fried egg and a salad for about 7Bs.) In the larger cities there are a few all-vegetarian restaurants (decent to good).

Coca leaves

Coca has been part of Andean culture for centuries, and chewing is still very common (and perfectly legal) in Bolivia. You should be able to buy a large bag of dried leaves at the local market. Coca is a stimulant, and it also suppresses hunger. Chewing a bunch of leaves for a few minutes should make your lips and throat slightly numb. Remember the slogan (printed on souvenir T-shirts): Coca no es Cocaina (“The coca leaf is not cocaine”). But cocaine is most certainly an illegal drug. Remember: only chew the leaf; if you eat the coca leaf, you will have a very sick stomach.

Juice bars are available in most markets. Milkshakes (with water or milk) cost 2 to 3 Bs. Locals can be seen drinking Vitaminico, a concoction of egg, beer and sugar, or “Vitima”, which contains coca leaves.

• Licuado – water or milk mixed with your favourite fruit combination. A large spoonful of sugar is added, unless you specifically ask not to. Try the milk and papaya licuado. You should probably ask if the added water is from the botella (bottle) or from the tap (not recommended).
• Vitaminico – Don’t ask what’s in it. Lots of fruit, milk, sugar, a glass of beer and, if you like, a whole egg (with shell).
• Mocochinchi – A drink made by infusing peaches and spices in water. Very good, but some people are put off by the shriveled peach that is usually served with each glass.
• Api – A traditional drink made from corn, usually found in open-air markets. If you didn’t know it was corn, you’d never guess, because this stuff is good.

Alcohol

Bolivia’s traditional alcoholic drink is chicha, a whitish, sour beverage made from fermented corn, which is drunk from a hemispherical bowl made from a hollowed-out pumpkin (with a round bottom so it cannot be put down). It is customary to pour a little chicha on the ground before and after drinking, as an offering to Pachamama, the Inca goddess of the earth.

• Singani is a grape liqueur mixed with Sprite or ginger ale with a lime garnish to make a cocktail called Chuflay.
• There are a number of local beers, the most important being Paceña and its premium brand Huari. El Inca is a very mild beer with little alcohol. Orange cocktails are also a popular drink!

Tarija is located at 1924 metres above sea level and is known for its viticulture, its huge vineyards and its award-winning wines. Therefore, you can visit the beautiful wineries and taste wine there, such as: Campos De Solana, Kohlberg, Casa Vieja, Valle De Concepción, and Casa Real, where the famous Singani is made.

The national currency is the Boliviano. Since January 2010, the exchange rate is generally Bs6.96/USD or Bs7.50/EUR (as of December 2016). Banknotes are available in denominations of 200, 100, 50, 20 and 10; coins are available in 5, 2 and 1 bolivianos, as well as 50, 20 and sometimes 10 centavos (1/10 boliviano). Notes larger than Bs50 can be difficult to break in small shops or with vendors, but a quick phone call or Internet session in an Internet café (see Contact, below) will usually get you some change.

Money can be exchanged for US dollars and most South American currencies at Casa De Cambio branches or from street vendors. Expect to negotiate a favourable exchange rate, as most vendors try to make money off tourists.

US dollars are widely accepted in hotels, tourist shops and for major purchases.

Banco de Credito is a good bank to withdraw money from. Banco Union should be avoided if possible, as it charges a 5% surcharge (since May 2012), although it does not mention this.

The service charge is included in the bill. However, a small tip of about 5% is sometimes given, which is considered a sign of politeness.

In Bolivia, do not use the word “Indio” to describe indigenous people. It is considered offensive. The term they use is “campesino” which translates as “peasant” or “indigenous”. A ‘cholo’ is a campesino who has moved to the city, and although the term was originally pejorative, it is now more a symbol of indigenous power. However, some locals still use the word ‘cholo’ as a derogatory term.

Consider also the marked cultural and racial differences between the ‘cambas’ of the llanos in the east, who are white and mestizo, and the ‘collas’ of the Andes in the west, who are indigenous. The two peoples do not generally get on well and have become even more opposed in recent years, since the election of Evo Morales, the country’s first indigenous president. Both peoples tend to defend their part of Bolivia, so that talking about your trip to the other cultural region of the country can be considered an insult. In Santa Cruz, where society is much more westernised, interaction with indigenous culture is frowned upon, while in La Paz and elsewhere the opposite is true.

It is also good to bear in mind that Bolivian culture is very warm and friendly. This means that it is very rude not to say Buen Día or Buenos Días to passers-by in the street. It is also common to give up your seat on the city bus to someone older than you or to a woman. In return, others will give up their seats for you if you look a bit older than them.

Bolivian culture has been strongly influenced by the Quechua, the Aymara, as well as by the popular cultures of all Latin America.

The cultural development is divided into three distinct periods: Pre-Columbian, Colonial and Republican. Important archaeological ruins, gold and silver jewellery, stone monuments, ceramics and weavings are preserved from several important pre-Columbian cultures. Among the most important ruins are Tiwanaku, El Fuerte de Samaipata, Inkallaqta and Iskanawaya. The country is rich in other sites that are difficult to access and little explored archaeologically.

The Spaniards brought with them their own tradition of religious art which, in the hands of indigenous and mestizo builders and craftsmen, developed into a rich and distinctive style of architecture, painting and sculpture known as “mestizo baroque”. The colonial period produced not only the paintings of Pérez de Holguín, Flores, Bitti and others, but also the works of skilled but unknown stonemasons, woodcarvers, goldsmiths and silversmiths. An important corpus of indigenous baroque religious music from the colonial period has been recovered and has been performed internationally with great success since 1994.

Among the most important Bolivian artists of the 20th century are María Luisa Pacheco, Roberto Mamani Mamani, Alejandro Mario Yllanes, Alfredo Da Silva and Marina Núñez del Prado.

Bolivia has a rich folklore. Its regional folk music is distinct and diverse. The “devil’s dances” of the annual Oruro carnival are one of the great folkloric events of South America, as is the lesser known Tarabuco carnival. The most famous of the country’s various festivals is the “Carnaval de Oruro”, which was declared one of the first 19 “masterpieces of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity” by UNESCO in May 2001.

Entertainment includes football.

Kitchen

Bolivian cuisine is mainly a combination of Spanish cuisine with traditional indigenous Aymara/Inca ingredients, to which were later added the influences of German, Italian, Basque, Russian, Polish and Arab immigrants.

Artistic and popular references

Published in 2011, Caroline Alethia‘s novel Plant Teacher is set in Bolivia between 2007 and 2008, and explores themes of politics, indigenous religions and narco-tourism.

Use common sense and take precautions that apply elsewhere. All tourists should be careful when choosing a guide and never accept medicine from unverifiable sources. Female tourists should be careful when travelling alone. Try to use “radio taxis” at night, as fake taxis are common and assaults and even rapes occur. It is a good idea to register with the consulate of the country you are living in when you enter the country. And it is also worth learning at least basic Spanish to protect yourself somewhat.

If you are taking an intercity bus (for example, from La Paz to Cochabamba), do not accept snacks or drinks from nearby passengers. Although they are probably trying to be nice, passengers can be drugged and robbed on night trips. Say “no, gracias.”

Some parts of Bolivia, such as La Paz (3650), Potosí (4010), Oruro (3950) and the area around Lake Titicaca, are at very high altitudes. It is therefore advisable to take adequate precautions against “sorojchi” mountain sickness.

In local pharmacies, they sell sorojchi pills that are supposed to help with altitude problems. They contain painkillers as well as natural herbs to help deal with the symptoms of “sorojchi”. In many parts of the Altiplano you can buy coca leaves which are supposed to help you fight sorojchi. Coca tea (“mate de coca”) is available in bags in many markets.

However, severe cases of altitude sickness can be treated at the HighAltitudePathologyInstituteClinicaIPPA. This clinic has the latest technology, including a hyperoxic/hypoxic adaptation chamber. In addition, the sun’s ultraviolet rays are much stronger – up to 20 times – than at sea level. A sun hat, sunglasses and skin protection (sun cream or long sleeves) are recommended.

• A yellow fever vaccination is recommended for those planning to spend time in the Bolivian Amazon. This should be done 10 days before arrival in the country if the visitor plans to visit rural areas.
• Malaria prophylaxis is recommended if the visitor plans to travel to tropical rural areas.
• As a preventive measure, the following vaccinations are recommended: Hepatitis A, hepatitis B and booster vaccinations against tetanus, diphtheria and measles.