Bangladesh

Bangladesh occupies the soft deltaic plains at the head of the Bay of Bengal, a region both defined and unsettled by water. Within its 148,460 square kilometres (57,320 sq mi), over 171 million people contend with monsoon rains, cyclones, shifting riverbanks and the ever-present risk of rising seas. At once among the world’s most densely settled lands and richest riverine ecosystems, it sustains a population larger than Brazil’s, yet endures the consequences of relentless pressure on its soil, forests and communities. 

The majority of Bangladesh sits within the vast Ganges Delta, the planet’s largest riverine plain. Here, the Ganges (Padma), the Brahmaputra (Jamuna) and the Meghna converge into a network of more than fifty-seven transboundary waterways—more than any other nation—before flowing into the Bay of Bengal. Gentle alluvial soils build and erode with seasonal floods, leaving behind silt-laden fields that remain among South Asia’s most fertile lands. Beyond this watery lowland lie plateaus of modest elevation: the Madhupur tract to the central north and the Barind region in the northwest, both defined by older, less yielding terrain. In the northeast and southeast, low hill ranges rise from the plains, nurturing evergreen forests and offering refuge during floods.

Only about 12 per cent of Bangladesh’s area exceeds twelve metres in altitude, so even a modest sea‑level rise of 1 metre might inundate a tenth of the country. Yet the same rivers that threaten through inundation sustain livelihoods, transport and agricultural bounty. Wetlands known as haors in the northeast harbor unique ecosystems of international scientific interest. To the southwest lie the Sundarbans, a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the world’s largest mangrove forest, where the silty delta meets saline tides, and the Bengal tiger slips through tanglewood in pursuit of deer. Forest cover stands near 14 per cent of the land—almost two million hectares—though primary forest is almost nonexistent, and much of the remaining cover falls within protected areas.

Straddling the Tropic of Cancer, Bangladesh’s climate is tropical. Winters from October to March are generally mild; summers from March to June grow oppressively humid, setting the stage for the monsoon season between June and October, which delivers the bulk of annual rainfall. Natural disasters shape the land and its people: cyclones and tidal bores lash the coast nearly every year; floods sweep inland; tornadoes touch down in seasonal storms. The cyclone of 1970, which claimed hundreds of thousands of lives, and the storm of 1991, which killed an estimated 140,000 people, remain tragic markers of vulnerability. More recently, the unprecedented floods of September 1998 submerged two‑thirds of the territory, displacing millions and causing significant loss of life. Incremental improvements in disaster risk reduction have since reduced human tolls, though economic damages persist.

Bangladesh’s ecology spans four terrestrial ecoregions: Lower Gangetic moist deciduous forests, Mizoram–Manipur–Kachin rain forests, Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests and Sundarbans mangroves. Its plainland landscapes host lush mosaics of rice paddies, mustard fields and groves of mango, jackfruit, bamboo and betel nut. Flowering plants number over 5,000 species, and freshwater wetlands bloom with lotuses and lilies each monsoon. Fauna range from the saltwater crocodile in mangrove channels to the Asian elephant in hilly woodlands, with clouded leopards, fishing cats, pangolins and one of the world’s largest populations of Irrawaddy dolphins in its rivers. More than 628 bird species find habitat here, among them the oriental pied hornbill and a host of migratory waterfowl.

The story of human settlement in present‑day Bangladesh reaches back millennia. Mahasthangarh, in the north, testifies to a fortified city as early as the third century BCE. Over subsequent centuries, Hindu and Buddhist dynasties left indelible marks: stone querns bearing Nandipada and swastika emblems in Wari-Bateshwar, Buddhist monasteries such as Somapura Mahavihara built under the Pala Empire from the eighth century, and shrines at Mainamati and Bikrampur. The Islamic incursion of 1204 initiated a new era, first under sultanates and later under Mughal suzerainty. Under the Bengal Subah of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the region attained remarkable prosperity. Its textile workshops wove fine muslin prized across Asia and Europe, and its rice harvests fed distant markets.

The 1757 Battle of Plassey ushered in nearly two centuries of British colonial rule. As part of the Bengal Presidency, its economy was reoriented toward cash crops and resource extraction, setting conditions for both infrastructural developments—railways, roads, ports—and agrarian distress. When British India was partitioned in 1947, Bengal divided along religious lines: West Bengal entered the Union of India, while East Bengal, renamed East Pakistan, became the eastern wing of Pakistan. Geographically separated by over 1,600 kilometres of Indian territory, political, cultural and economic imbalances fuelled resentment.

Systematic discrimination by West Pakistan’s authorities against Bengalis in language, administration and resource allocation led to the Bengali Language Movement of 1952, when students demonstrating for the recognition of Bengali as a state language were killed. Over the next two decades, political repression intensified. In March 1971, after a rigged election denied the dominant Bengali party its parliamentary role, East Pakistan’s leadership declared independence. A brutal civil war followed: the Mukti Bahini guerrilla force, aided by Indian military intervention in December, defeated Pakistani forces, and on 16 December 1971, Bangladesh achieved sovereignty.

In the years after independence, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, the nation’s founding leader, became prime minister and later president, only to be assassinated in a coup in August 1975. The subsequent decade saw further upheavals: the military rule of Ziaur Rahman—himself assassinated in 1981—and then the dictatorship of Hussain Muhammad Ershad, overthrown by mass movements in 1990. With the return to parliamentary democracy in 1991, political life has been dominated by the alternating tenures of Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia in what observers have termed the “Battle of the Begums.” In August 2024, a student‑led uprising removed Hasina, and an interim government under Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus assumed power.

Bangladesh is a unitary parliamentary republic patterned on the British Westminster system. The president serves largely ceremonial duties, while the prime minister holds executive authority. Legislative power rests with a single‑chamber Jatiya Sangsad (National Parliament). Administratively, the country divides into eight divisions—Barishal, Chattogram, Dhaka, Khulna, Mymensingh, Rajshahi, Rangpur and Sylhet—each headed by a divisional commissioner. Divisions fragment into 64 districts (zilas), further subdivided into upazilas (subdistricts) or thanas. Rural governance occurs at the union level; urban areas are managed by city corporations and municipalities. Elections for union and ward councils are direct, with parliamentary representation reserved to ensure women occupy at least three of every twelve seats at the union level.

Bangladesh maintains one of South Asia’s largest militaries and contributes the third‑largest contingent to United Nations peacekeeping missions worldwide. It belongs to regional and international bodies including BIMSTEC, SAARC, OIC and the Commonwealth, and has twice chaired the Climate Vulnerable Forum in response to its acute exposure to climate change.

With a 2023 population of roughly 171.4 million, Bangladesh ranks eighth globally in population and fifth in Asia, yet it is the most densely settled among large countries, with over 1,260 people per square kilometre. Its total fertility rate plummeted from 5.5 births per woman in 1985 to 1.9 by 2022—a remarkable demographic transition that has taken Bangladesh below the replacement level of 2.1. Youth dominate: a median age near 28 years, with more than a quarter of citizens under 14, and only about 6 per cent aged 65 or older. Approximately 60 per cent of the population remains rural.

Ethnically, Bangladesh is strikingly homogeneous: Bengalis comprise 99 per cent of residents. Minority communities of Adivasi peoples—the Chakmas, Marmas, Santhals and others—reside chiefly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, where an insurgency for autonomy persisted from 1975 until a 1997 peace accord. Although the accord reduced violence, the region remains heavily militarized. Since 2017, Bangladesh has hosted more than 700,000 Rohingya refugees fleeing violence in neighbouring Myanmar, making it one of the world’s largest host countries.

Bengali is the official and predominant language, spoken natively by more than 99 per cent of the population. Within its dialect continuum, Standard Colloquial Bengali coexists with regional forms such as Chittagonian, Noakhali and Sylheti. English retains significant roles in education, law and commerce, and is compulsory in curricula. Tribal languages—Chakma, Garo, Rakhine, Santali and others—persist among indigenous groups, though many face the threat of endangerment.

Islam is the state religion, yet the constitution guarantees secular governance and freedom of worship. Approximately 91 per cent of citizens are Sunni Muslims, making Bangladesh the third‑largest Muslim‑majority nation. Hindus represent nearly 8 per cent—the third‑largest such community globally—and are followed by Buddhists (0.6 per cent), mainly among tribal groups in Chittagong, and Christians (0.3 per cent), predominantly Bengali Protestants and Catholics. Traditional festivals bind communities: Pahela Baishakh, the Bengali New Year on 14 April, is celebrated across faiths with music, fairs and gatherings. Islamic holidays—Eid al‑Fitr and Eid al‑Adha—mark the longest sequences of national holidays. Durga Puja draws Hindu devotees; Buddha Purnima honors the birth of Gautama Buddha; Christmas is observed by the Christian minority. National commemorations include Language Movement Day on 21 February and Independence (26 March) and Victory Day (16 December), when citizens pay homage at the Shaheed Minar and the National Martyrs’ Memorial.

Bangladesh’s economy has emerged among the world’s fastest growers. As of 2023 it ranked thirty‑sixth globally in nominal GDP and twenty‑fourth by purchasing power parity, with a labor force of 71.4 million—the seventh‑largest globally—and an unemployment rate around 5.1 per cent. The service sector accounts for roughly 51.5 per cent of GDP, industry for 34.6 per cent, and agriculture for only 11 per cent, despite agriculture employing about half the workforce.

A cornerstone of Bangladesh’s export earnings—84 per cent—comes from ready‑made garments, making it the world’s second‑largest apparel exporter. Factories produce for leading global brands, fueling growth even as they face scrutiny over labor conditions. Jute, once called the “golden fibre,” remains a significant export, alongside rice, fish, tea and flowers. Shipbuilding, pharmaceuticals, steel, electronics and leather goods also supply domestic and international markets.

Remittances from Bangladeshis working abroad reached approximately US $27 billion in 2024, underpinning foreign‑exchange reserves second only to India’s in South Asia, though those reserves have drawn down in recent years. China and India stand as the country’s largest trading partners, accounting for roughly 15 per cent and 8 per cent of trade, respectively. The private sector generates about 80 per cent of GDP, led by family‑owned conglomerates such as BEXIMCO, BRAC Bank and Square Pharmaceuticals. The Dhaka and Chittagong Stock Exchanges serve as the twin capital markets. Telecommunications have soared: by November 2024, there were nearly 189 million mobile subscriptions.

Challenges remain: political instability, high inflation, endemic corruption, power shortages and uneven reform efforts temper growth prospects. Bangladesh also endures one of the world’s largest refugee burdens, environmental pressures from climate change and water disputes with upstream neighbours.

Bangladesh’s built environment layers successive civilizations. In the north, Hindu and Buddhist relics at Mahasthangarh date to the Iron Age. The Somapura Mahavihara (eighth century) at Paharpur stands as South Asia’s most extensive Buddhist monastery complex. Islamic influence appears in the Bengal Sultanate’s distinctive brick mosques of the thirteenth century, notably the Sixty Dome Mosque at Bagerhat. Mughal patronage yielded forts and caravanserais—Lalbagh Fort in Dhaka, Sat Gambuj Mosque in Mohammadpur—and riverside palace‑cum-gateways such as the Bara and Chhota Katra.

Under British rule, Indo‑Saracenic architecture flourished: the Curzon Hall at Dhaka University, Rangpur Town Hall and the Court Building in Chittagong. Zamindar estates erected palaces like Ahsan Manzil, Tajhat Palace and the Rose Garden Palace. In the twentieth century, native modernist Muzharul Islam championed a new aesthetic, while Louis Kahn’s National Parliament Building in Sher‑e‑Bangla Nagar remains an exemplar of monumental design.

The country’s river‑tied culture resonates in its cuisine. White rice and fish form the staple; lentils, gourds and leafy greens provide essential palate balance. Spices—turmeric, coriander, fenugreek, panch phoron (a five‑spice blend)—flavour curries of beef, mutton, chicken and duck. Mustard oil and mustard paste give pungency; coconut milk enriches coastal stews. Hilsa, the national fish, appears steamed, curried or mustard‑sauced; rohu and pangas follow close behind. Shrimp dishes such as chingri malai curry grace festive tables.

Street foods brim with crisply fried samosas, stuffed chotpoti (a chickpea‑tangy potato snack), shingara and fuchka (local equivalent of pani puri). Kebabs—seekh, shami and chapli—are sold at roadside stalls and restaurants. Breads range from luchi (fried flatbreads) to naan in urban centres. Desserts—mishti doi (sweetened yoghurt), sondesh, rôshogolla, chomchom and jalebi—celebrate the joy of sugar. Halwa, shemai (vermicelli pudding) and falooda appear during religious festivals; pithas (rice‑based cakes) emerge with seasonal harvests.

Tea, served hot and sweet, sustains morning and afternoon conventions, often accompanied by biscuits. Traditional beverages—borhani (spiced yoghurt drink), mattha (buttermilk) and lassi—offer cooling relief in summer.

Though overshadowed by more frequented neighbours, Bangladesh offers history, culture and natural scenery. Its three UNESCO World Heritage Sites—the Mosque City of Bagerhat, the Paharpur Buddhist Vihara and the Sundarbans—anchor itineraries. Dhaka, one of the world’s most densely built cities, blends crumbling colonial quarters in Puran Dhaka with glitzy malls and high‑rise offices. Highlights include Lalbagh Fort, Ahsan Manzil, the Shaheed Minar, the National Museum and Louis Kahn’s Parliament Building. Narrow lanes of Puran Dhaka unfold like living museums, each moholla (neighbourhood) hosting specialized artisans.

Beyond the capital lie archaeological complexes—Moynamoti, Mahasthangarh, Kantajir Mondir—and village temples bearing century‑old stone reliefs. Natural attractions range from the world’s longest uninterrupted sandy beach at Cox’s Bazar to the coral islet of St. Martin’s. The Chittagong Hill Tracts—Rangamati, Khagrachhari and Bandarban—invite trekking and homestays with tribal communities. Kaptai Lake, framed by emerald hills, offers boating and fishing. Jaflong’s boulder‑strewn riverbanks and Sylhet’s tea gardens at Sreemangal provide contrast: landscapes of serenity and bustle.

Eco‑tourism ventures include visits to Lawachara National Park, mangrove explorations in the Sundarbans, and wildlife safaris tracking Bengal tigers and spotted deer. Angling, river cruises, hiking, surfing and yachting present varying degrees of remote immersion.

The Bangladeshi taka (৳; ISO BDT) subdivides into 100 poysha. Coins in denominations of ৳1, ৳2 and ৳5 circulate alongside banknotes of ৳2, ৳5, ৳10, ৳20, ৳50, ৳100, ৳200, ৳500 and ৳1,000. Foreign currencies exchange at banks or money changers; hotels offer less favorable rates. ATMs are widespread in urban centres and towns, typically situated within guarded premises. Major international networks—MasterCard, Visa, AmEx, JCB—are accepted, though visitors should notify banks in advance to avoid declines.

Shopping ranges from informal bazaars—where bargaining prevails—to fixed‑price boutiques like Aarong, which offers handicrafts and traditional attire at set rates. Large malls in Dhaka, notably Jamuna Future Park and Bashundhara City, host international brands, electronics outlets and food courts. Supermarket chains—Agora, Meena Bazar, Shwapno—catalogue groceries, perishables and imported goods, all card‑friendly and increasingly offering online ordering.

Bangladesh’s conservative social mores discourage public alcohol consumption, though luxury hotels and select clubs in Dhaka, Cox’s Bazar and Saint Martin’s Island supply beer and spirits, often at premium prices. Five‑star establishments—from Radisson to Sonargaon—frequently hold DJ‑led events.

Bangladesh persists in a delicate balance between abundance and fragility. Its ample waterways nourish fields and feed families, even as they threaten to redraw borders and inundate villages. Its people—youthful, resilient and resourceful—navigate political upheaval, economic opportunity and environmental peril. Over centuries of empire and occupation, they have forged a distinct identity rooted in language, floodplain agriculture and maritime exchange. Today, as climate change intensifies and regional geopolitics evolve, Bangladesh stands at a crossroads. Yet its record of economic ascent, disaster resilience and cultural vibrancy suggests that this deltaic nation, shaped by flux, will continue to adapt and endure.