Rumkale, located along the banks of the Euphrates River, is a witness to centuries of strategic significance and cultural development. This old citadel in Gaziantep Province, around 50 km west of Şanlıurfa, provides a fascinating insight into the region’s rich history. Its spectacular ruins have seen the rise and fall of empires, invasions, and cultural transformations, giving it a timeless symbol of tenacity and change.

Rumkale’s history dates back to the Byzantine era, when it was built as a fortified stronghold. The fortress’s earliest foundations date back to the Byzantine period, when it functioned as the seat of a Syriac Orthodox bishopric. The location, which is strategically located along the Euphrates, was chosen because it is defensible and provides security against both external and internal threats. The place became an important religious center when the Christian community established itself behind the fortress’s walls.

As the Byzantine Empire fought to maintain control over its extensive domains, Rumkale became a focal point in the changing political scene. As the Byzantine Empire’s control over the region faded in the eleventh century, the castle grew into a bustling town. Its Armenian civilian population increased, and the town’s importance developed beyond its religious role. Rumkale, originally a bastion for Byzantine forces, has evolved into a thriving community with a unique mix of ethnicities, customs, and influences.

The political upheavals of the 11th century were watershed moments in Rumkale’s history. Following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the Byzantine Empire experienced internal conflict as well as external challenges. During this turbulent period, Philaretos Brachamios, a Byzantine general of Armenian ancestry, seized possession of the citadel. This marked the beginning of a new chapter in the fortress’s history, as it transitioned from Byzantine control to Armenian masters.

Rumkale became the hub of a complicated political network under the reign of Philaretos and his successors, including Kogh Vasil and his son Vasil Dgha. Vasil Dgha’s ill-fated fight with Baldwin II of Edessa in 1116 resulted in Rumkale’s submission and incorporation into the Crusader powers. The citadel, formerly a stronghold of Byzantine dominance, became a valuable strategic advantage for the Crusaders as they sought to rule the Levant.

Between 1148 and 1150, Rumkale’s religious affiliation underwent major change. The Armenian Apostolic Church’s Catholicos Grigor III Pahlavuni purchased the stronghold and established it as the regional headquarters for the Armenian church. While it remained a focal point for Syriac Orthodox and Catholic delegates, the Armenian Apostolic Church’s significant presence cemented Rumkale’s status as a religious center.

During this time, the fortress became a symbol of the Armenian people’s unwavering strength and faith. Rumkale’s location on the Euphrates assured its continuing relevance in the region, and it became an important outpost for the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, a powerful medieval state that played a crucial role in Crusader history. However, by 1268, the castle had grown increasingly isolated from the rest of Cilicia’s possessions, reflecting a shifting political and military scene.

Rumkale’s fortunes changed dramatically again in 1292. The Mamluk Sultanate, which had established itself as the region’s dominating power, besieged and seized the castle. The castle entered a new age, becoming a major garrison on the frontier with the Ilkhanate, a Mongol Empire breakaway state. Rumkale remained under Mamluk administration for generations, and its strategic location guaranteed its continuing military importance.

Following the Mamluks’ loss at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, the citadel surrendered to Ottoman forces without a siege in 1516, resulting in a relatively quiet transition of control. Rumkale retained its position as a military outpost throughout Ottoman administration, but the stronghold progressively lost its cultural and religious significance.

Rumkale was in decline by the early nineteenth century. Ottoman forces suppressed a local insurrection in 1831, and the fortress was depopulated. The following year, during the Egyptian-Ottoman War, Egyptian general Ibrahim Pasha bombarded the citadel, aggravating its degradation. For generations, the once-mighty citadel had served as a symbol of power and resilience, but now it is little more than a crumbling remnant of the past.

Rumkale has been called by several different names over the years, reflecting the varied cultural influences that created its identity. In Armenian, the place was known as Hromklay or Hromgla, but the locals called it Urumgala. The 15th-century traveler Johann Schiltberger referred to it as Urumkala, emphasizing its significance as a regional landmark. The stronghold was also known as Šūrō d’Rūmoyē and Ḥeṣnō d’Rūmoyē in Syriac texts during the medieval period.

After being captured by the Mamluks in 1292, the castle was renamed Qal’at al-Muslimin, reflecting the Mamluks’ supremacy in the region. Despite changes in name and rulers, the stronghold remained a powerful emblem of the region’s complicated and variegated history.

History of Rumkale

Antiquity

Rumkale, located majestically on a cliff along the Euphrates River, has long been acknowledged for its strategic military importance. The Assyrian Empire, known for its imperial reach and military might, recognized the strategic importance of this place. The ancient fortification is supposed to correspond to the Biblical city of Shitamrat, which was notably taken by King Shalmaneser III in 855 BCE. Rumkale’s peculiar site on a high cliff distinguished it from other structures in the region, making it an ideal location for defensive purposes. Despite speculation about its connection to Shitamrat, archeological evidence does not confirm the presence of structures predating the 1000 CE period, leaving open questions regarding its previous role.

It is believed that John, one of Jesus Christ’s apostles, lived at Rumkale during the Roman period, adding to the site’s historical tapestry. This relationship suggests the presence of Roman fortifications on the site, but no direct evidence of Roman-era constructions has been discovered. Thus, the site’s rich history is veiled in mystery and religious tradition, lending it an enduring historical fascination.

Early Medieval Period

The earliest surviving architectural traces at Rumkale demonstrate the Byzantine Empire’s influence, implying that the stronghold played an important role in defending Byzantium’s eastern frontier. The castle, strategically located along the Roman road along to the Euphrates River, would have played an important role in securing this key commercial and military route. Rumkale became home to a Syriac Orthodox bishopric in the fifth and sixth centuries, with notable religious personalities such as Uranius and Maryiun making their mark on the region. Their participation in significant religious councils emphasizes the site’s ecclesiastical significance throughout this period.

The political environment of the region changed in the 11th century, when an influx of Armenians from the north, displaced by Byzantine military pressure, transformed Rumkale from a citadel to a thriving settlement. This period saw the emergence of the Armenian presence, which would shape the site’s history for centuries. Rumkale became entangled in intricate power conflicts following its defeat at the Battle of Manzikert in the 1080s, led by Byzantine-Armenian general Philaretos Brachamios. It eventually fell under the control of Kogh Vasil, an Armenian monarch with ambitions to unite with the Crusader nations. However, after his successor, Vasil Dgha, was captured by Baldwin II of Edessa in 1116, Rumkale’s fate became inextricably intertwined to the Crusader kingdoms’ political maneuvering.

By the mid-12th century, the stronghold had become a refuge for Edessa’s exiled population following its conquest in 1144. Rumkale served as a jail for Syriac Orthodox Metropolitan Basil bar Shumna, who narrowly survived the fall of Edessa the previous year. Gregory III purchased the stronghold from Beatrice of Turbessel in 1148 or 1150, bringing it under Armenian Church administration. This marked the beginning of Rumkale’s function as a hub for the Armenian Catholicosate, cementing its status as a religious and cultural center.

Armenian Cilician Period

Rumkale’s importance grew significantly under the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia. The stronghold became a popular location for theological discussions, such as the 1170 and 1172 conferences that attempted to bridge the gap between the Armenian Church, the Byzantine Church, and the Syrian Orthodox Church. These events reflected the region’s broader efforts to promote religious unity and compromise. In 1179, a synod of 33 Armenian bishops met at Rumkale and sent a statement of faith to Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos, who died before receiving it. During this time, Rumkale rose to prominence as a center of manuscript production, particularly under the patronage of Catholicos Constantine I. Toros Roslin, a well-known Armenian artist whose original artistic style left a long legacy, worked here, increasing the site’s cultural and artistic importance.

Rumkale remained an important ecclesiastical and political center in Armenia during the late 12th and early 13th centuries. From 1203 to 1293, it housed the Armenian Church’s Catholicos. However, as the 13th century progressed, Rumkale’s strategic importance waned. By 1268, the castle had become isolated from the rest of the Armenian kingdom and was under attack by Mamluk forces, though the citadel itself remained unconquered. Despite this, the Mamluks did not overrun the fortress until 1292, after a long siege that resulted in the massacre of the garrison and the capture of the population.

Mamluk Period

Under Mamluk rule, the citadel was renamed Qal’at al-Muslimin and became a strategic military stronghold in the region. The Mamluks used Rumkale as a base for raids and intelligence operations against the Ilkhanate. Despite its strategic significance, the fortress was never as prominent as other Mamluk strongholds like as Bahasni or Ayntab. Timur’s soldiers severely damaged Rumkale in 1400-1, but the Mamluks restored the structure and held control. The castle experienced various changes in governance, including a brief stint under the power of Shah Suwar, the Dulkadirid king, before being regained by the Mamluks in the late 15th century.

Ottoman Period

Rumkale became part of the Ottoman territory in 1516, after the Mamluk Sultanate fell to the invading Ottoman Empire. Following the Mamluks’ loss at the Battle of Marj Dabiq, the castle and other Mamluk-held territory surrendered to Ottoman forces. Rumkale’s administrative position evolved in the years following its incorporation into the newly constituted Vilayet-i Arab. By the early 16th century, the town had become a kaza within the Sanjak of Birejik, with the bulk of the people having converted to Islam. While some Armenians returned to the area in later years, Rumkale’s once-thriving community had shrunk, and its role as a religious and cultural center had declined.

Desertion

The culminating chapter in Rumkale’s illustrious history occurred in the nineteenth century. Following Bekirzade Mehmed Bey’s rebellion in 1831, the Ottoman Empire ordered the town’s depopulation to keep the stronghold from becoming a shelter for future uprisings. During the Egyptian-Ottoman War in 1832, bombardments severely destroyed the site, forcing the remaining people to relocate. Kasaba became their new home, and many powerful families relocated to surrounding settlements like Halfeti and Aintab. The once-thriving castle sank into history, leaving a mute monument to centuries of conquest, religious upheaval, and cultural interaction.

Architecture of Rumkale: Religious and Educational Heritage

Rumkale, a historic village on the banks of the Euphrates River in southeastern Turkey, has long held spiritual and cultural value. Its architectural history combines religious structures from both the Christian and Islamic faiths, as well as educational institutions that have stood as beacons of knowledge for centuries. The structures here not only reflect the town’s unique religious and cultural heritage, but also provide insight into its function as a center of intellectual and spiritual activity over the years.

Churches

Rumkale’s churches, notably those from the medieval period, represent the region’s rich Christian legacy, particularly in the context of the Syriac Orthodox Church. According to the distinguished 13th-century Syriac prelate and writer Bar Hebraeus, the town contained at least two notable churches. One, a smaller edifice, was most likely built at the end of the 12th century, demonstrating the town’s ongoing Christian presence despite shifting political landscapes. The church was most likely located in the major town, making it a significant hub for the local Christian populace.

A larger and more grandiose church, built during the reign of Patriarch Ignatius III David (1222-1252), stood in Rumkale’s lower district. This structure is a monument to the architectural talent and devotion of the time, evoking both religious passion and cultural liveliness. Notably, this church was associated with Rabban Isho, an Assyrian monk and renowned copyist who died in 1247 and was buried at the site. Rabban Isho’s church served as both a place of worship and an intellectual hub, highlighting the town’s status as a regional center of theological and scholastic activity.

Rumkale’s ecclesiastical architecture, with its intricately crafted buildings, reflects the long-standing Christian presence in the area, despite changing times and external challenges. These hallowed locations serve as reminders of the town’s historical and spiritual significance within the larger context of Syriac Orthodoxy.

Mosques

Rumkale’s architectural landscape was improved over the years by the installation of mosques, reflecting the region’s Islamic influence during the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman documents from the 16th century describe the presence of two major mosques in the town: the Grand Mosque (Ulu Camii) and the Castle Mosque (Kal’a Camii). These mosques, located in the heart of Rumkale, most likely served as the primary places of prayer for the town’s Muslim residents.

Yılmaz’s list of mosques includes Horos, Mehmed Saruji, and Zeytun, as well as four minor masjids: Kubbeli, Han, Hajji Osman, and Diremli. It is worth noting, however, that some of these mosques may have been located in adjacent villages rather than within the town itself. According to Yasin Taş, the real number of mosques in Rumkale may have been smaller, with just the Grand Mosque and Castle Mosque securely established in town.

In his travelogue, the Seyahatnâme, 17th-century Ottoman traveler Evliya Çelebi mentions two mosques: one within the town and one in the neighboring suburbs. These allusions imply that the town’s Islamic infrastructure was well-developed and integrated into its citizens’ daily life during this time.

Rumkale saw the construction of new mosques throughout the Ottoman era. Among the most notable was Ak Masjid, which most likely dated from the late 17th century. It was first recorded in Ottoman documents in January 1697 and remained so until 1844, indicating that it was a significant religious and cultural landmark at the time. Another important construction, Abu’l-Qays Mosque, was first documented in 1726 but was no longer mentioned by the mid-19th century, reflecting a shift in the town’s religious dynamics.

Ikiyollu Masjid, located in the Qizilja area, was also significant because of its relationship to Abdulghani, a notable character known as Ghnana Dede. The town’s Islamic ancestry gains another layer of historical intrigue with the masjid’s first mention in 1697. The structure’s later name, Ghnana Masjid, relates it to the region’s mystic traditions of the time. Other mosques, such as the Oluk Mosque and the Hizir Ilyas Mosque, featured in Ottoman records, with the latter being particularly notable due to a photograph from the late nineteenth century that provides a visual evidence of its existence during the time of Sultan Abdul Hamid II (r. 1876-1909).

Rumkale’s mosques, from the grand Ulu Camii to the smaller, lesser-known masjids, represent the town’s long-standing Islamic origins.

Schools

In addition to the religious buildings that define Rumkale’s architectural character, the town had educational institutions that added to its intellectual and spiritual vitality. The Rammahiya Madrasa, which is thought to have been located in the Rumlulu area, was one such institution. This madrasa was most likely a learning center for students studying Islamic theology and sciences, with scholars coming from both local and distant locations. According to historian Muhsin Soyudoğan, the name “Rammahiya” may be derived from the Ramah Spring, a local landmark. However, prior transliterations have confused the specific origin. Soyudoğan suggests that the madrasa’s name may refer to Syrian chemist Hasan al-Rammah, highlighting its connection to Middle Eastern intellectual traditions.

In addition to acting as a madrasa, the Rammahiya complex included a primary school and a masjid, meeting the community’s educational and spiritual needs. The integration of these diverse institutions in a single compound emphasizes the town’s multifarious role as a center for both religious and secular study.

The madrasa complex was strategically located within Rumkale’s castle, close to a famous well that, according to Ottoman archives, was utilized to draw water for the institution. The expenses for the complex included ropes and buckets, indicating the institution’s practical needs as well as the town’s reliance on water sources for daily living. The relationship between the madrasa, masjid, and local water supplies emphasizes the importance of the geography in determining Rumkale’s architectural and educational growth.