Pergamon, an ancient Greek city in Aeolis, was once a thriving hub of power, culture, and intellectual activity. Situated 26 kilometers from the current Aegean coastline, it holds an important cape on the north bank of the river Caicus, today known as Bakırçay. The amazing archeological relics spread over the countryside illustrate its ongoing significance throughout history, providing a vivid peek into its glorious past. Pergamon, renowned for its cultural and architectural achievements, continues to enchant researchers and visitors alike.

During the Hellenistic period, Pergamon grew to prominence as the capital of the Kingdom of Pergamon, ruled by the Attalids. From 281 until 133 BC, this mighty empire transformed the city into one of Greece’s most important cultural centers. The Attalids, noted for their encouragement of the arts and sciences, elevated Pergamon to the pinnacle of intellectual and artistic success. Under their dominion, the city became home to the renowned Pergamon Altar, an amazing example of Greek sculpture and architecture that is still revered today for its splendor.

Pergamon’s renown went beyond its financial prosperity and artistic triumphs. It is named as one of the seven churches of Asia in the New Testament Book of Revelation, indicating its significance in early Christian history. Its strategic location in Asia Minor made it a hub for the movement of ideas, commerce, and civilizations, serving as an important link between East and West.

Pergamon is located 335 meters above sea level on a rugged andesite mesa. This lofty elevation offered both natural defense and an excellent view of the surrounding plains and rivers. The acropolis, which dominated the city skyline, represented Pergamon’s power and prestige. The mesa itself slopes sharply on the north, west, and east sides, but three natural terraces on the southern face provided a reasonably easy route to the summit.

The Selinus (current Bergamaçay) and Cetius rivers, which flowed at the base of the acropolis, molded the topography and strengthened the city’s defensive posture. The rivers also provided essential resources, boosting the city’s wealth. To the north, the Caicus River dug its way through the surrounding mountains, creating the fertile Caicus valley and isolating the city from the ocean. This geographical seclusion gave Pergamon an inland character, while the coastal village of Elaia served as its port, connecting the city to the Aegean Sea.

Pergamon is located in the historic region of Mysia, on the northern margin of the Caicus plain. The surrounding area is characterized by volcanic rock, specifically andesite, which creates the massif upon which the city was built. This massif, about 5.5 kilometers long and 1 kilometer wide, is a remarkable geological feature that rises abruptly from the valley level, enhancing the city’s natural defenses. The landscape is severe, with the northern cliff face dropping sharply into the Cetius River, while the southern side of the massif dips more gradually onto the plain.

The region’s climate is Mediterranean, with hot, dry summers from May through August. This environment, typical of the Aegean coast, inspired the city’s development and agricultural methods, helping the region’s economy thrive. The rich plains provided sustenance for both the metropolitan population and the surrounding agricultural towns throughout the drought months.

Today, visitors to Pergamon can still feel the grandeur of its history through the spectacular ruins that remain. The Pergamon Altar, one of the most famous Hellenistic structures, exemplifies the city’s artistic and cultural achievements. The altar, known for its colossal frieze representing the Gigantomachy, the conflict between gods and giants, is still considered one of the most important examples of ancient Greek sculpture. Other notable structures include the Temple of Athena, the Library of Pergamon, and the theater, which, with its steeply rising seating tiers, could accommodate up to 10,000 people.

The city’s acropolis, with its imposing architecture and panoramic views, provides an evocative peek into the life of one of the ancient world’s most powerful towns. The ruins of its gymnasium, agora, and different temples capture the essence of a city at the pinnacle of cultural and intellectual prowess.

Pergamon was named to the UNESCO World Heritage List in 2014 in recognition of its extraordinary cultural and historical value. This classification guarantees the preservation of the city’s magnificent ruins, which span several centuries of Greek, Roman, and Byzantine history. Pergamon’s listing on the World Heritage List emphasizes the city’s significance as a symbol of classical civilization and its long-lasting impact on the evolution of Western culture.

History of Pergamon

Pre-Hellenistic Period

Pergamon’s settlement dates back to the Archaic period, with modest archeological finds revealing the earliest evidence of habitation. Pottery fragments, particularly imports from eastern Greece and Corinth, date the city’s founding to the late eighth century BC. Though evidence of Bronze Age occupancy is still scarce, the discovery of stone tools in the surrounding area shows older human activity.

The first literary mention of Pergamon is in Xenophon’s Anabasis (400/399 BC). Xenophon identifies the place as the Ten Thousand’s final destination during their historic escape from Persia. He depicts the city, which he calls Pergamos, as he transfers his Greek men to Thibron, who is planning an invasion against the Persian satraps. Pergamon was then under the influence of the Gongylos family, an aristocratic Greek family who supported the Achaemenid Empire. They sought sanctuary in Asia Minor and won the territory from Xerxes I. During his stay, Xenophon was welcomed by Gongylos’ widow, Hellas.

The next significant event in Pergamon’s history occurred in 362 BC, when Orontes, satrap of Mysia, used the city as a base for a failed insurrection against the Persian Empire. However, it was only via Alexander the Great’s military exploits that Pergamon and its surrounding lands were freed from Persian rule. The terrain changed dramatically during this time period, as substantial terrace construction erased many of the earlier structures. However, vestiges of the Athena Temple and sections of the Demeter Sanctuary from the fourth century BC have remained.

Hellenistic Period

Pergamon’s ascent as a powerful city-state began in 301 BC, when Lysimachus, King of Thrace, claimed the city. His lieutenant, Philetaerus, enlarged the town and laid the groundwork for Pergamon’s future splendor. Philetaerus declared independence in 281 BC, after Lysimachus’ empire had collapsed, and founded the Attalid dynasty. This dynasty controlled Pergamon from 281 to 133 BC, with noteworthy monarchs like Eumenes I, Attalus I, and Eumenes II broadening the city’s borders and importance.

Philetaerus’ original holdings were limited to Pergamon, but his successor, Eumenes I, greatly enlarged the city’s area after winning the Battle of Sardis in 261 BC. Eumenes I was able to capture enormous areas of land that extended all the way to the coast. However, he refrained from taking on a royal title, preferring a more modest image. The most notable military victory occurred in 238 BC, when Attalus I, Eumenes’ successor, conquered the Galatians, a Celtic race that had long threatened the region.

Attalus I’s victory heralded a new era of freedom, and Pergamon emerged as a potent monarchy in Asia Minor. The Attalids were fiercely loyal to Rome, siding with the Romans in the Macedonian Wars and the Roman-Seleucid War. By the Peace of Apamea in 188 BC, Pergamon had reached its peak expansion, absorbing the former Seleucid territory in Asia Minor. Despite their efforts, Rome became cautious of Pergamon’s authority, particularly following reports of secret conversations between Eumenes II and Macedonian king Perseus. As a result, the city lost its privileged status with Rome.

Under the reign of Eumenes II and Attalus II, Pergamon developed as a cultural and artistic center, seeking to rival Athens. Eumenes II built spectacular structures, including a large city wall, which increased the city’s size to 90 hectares. Pergamon became a center of study, with a library second only to Alexandria’s. The city’s artists and academics made significant contributions to Hellenistic culture and intellectual life. Notably, Pergamon became famous for its manufacturing of parchment, an innovation associated with the city’s name, but it is unclear whether the city developed the material or simply improved its use.

However, the Attalid dynasty ended in 133 BC, when Attalus III died without an heir and left the country to Rome. Aristonicus, who unsuccessfully claimed the throne, staged a brief insurrection in response to his death. Following a series of conflicts, Rome annexed the kingdom, absorbing the majority of Pergamon’s territory into the newly founded Roman province of Asia.

Roman Period

Pergamon’s standing declined with the shift to Roman authority. During the First Mithridatic War in 88 BC, Mithridates VI, the ruler of Pontus, made Pergamon his base of operations against Rome. Following Mithridates’ defeat, Pergamon lost its position as a free city and was required to pay tribute. During the late Republic, members of the Pergamene aristocracy strove to maintain their standing by contributing to the city’s development and identifying with Rome.

Despite these defeats, Pergamon maintained its status as a regional hub, eventually becoming the site of a conventus, or regional assembly. Augustus bestowed upon the city the title of neocorate, signifying its involvement in the imperial religion. Throughout the first century AD, Pergamon remained an important city, with the local elite wielding power in Roman politics.

Under Trajan’s rule, Pergamon’s architecture expanded significantly. Temples, a stadium, and an amphitheater were among the huge public buildings built at the base of the Acropolis. Pergamon’s popularity grew after Hadrian upgraded the city to the status of metropolis in 123 AD. The city was also well-known for its Asclepius sanctuary, which became one of the Roman world’s most recognized healing places.

By the second century AD, Pergamon was one of Asia Minor’s greatest cities, with a population of almost 200,000. It was the home of the renowned physician Galen, who trained at the city’s Asclepius temple. However, by the third century, the city had declined significantly due to the period’s crises, which included an earthquake in 262 AD and a Gothic invasion. While some recovery happened in late antiquity, Pergamon’s former greatness was irreversibly diminished.

Byzantine Period

Pergamon’s fortunes were not immune to power upheavals that occurred throughout the Byzantine era. In the seventh century, Arab raiders invaded the city, which they seized in AD 663/4. In response to the mounting Arab threat, Emperor Constantine II fortified the city and relocated the settlement to the safety of the Acropolis.

Pergamon belonged to the Thracesian Theme in the medieval Byzantine period. During this time, an Armenian community most likely established in the city, mainly of refugees from Muslim conquests. The city was ravaged again by Arab invaders in 716, although it was restored and reinforced after the Arabs dropped their siege of Constantinople.

The fight in Pergamon persisted during the 11th-century Seljuk invasion. Following the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, the city was repeatedly attacked, resulting in substantial destruction. Despite a temporary restoration by Emperor Manuel I Komnenos in 1170, the city never regained its former power. By the late 12th century, the local bishopric had advanced to metropolitan status.

Following the Fourth Crusade and the Sack of Constantinople in 1204, Pergamon joined the Nicaean Empire. During this time, the city had degraded to the point where even the once-grand Attalid and Roman monuments lay in ruins.

The last chapters of Pergamon’s history were written during the emergence of the Ottoman Empire. The city was absorbed by the Karasids and then the Ottoman beylik. Sultan Murad III famously transferred two massive alabaster urns from Pergamon’s ruins to Istanbul and displayed them in the Hagia Sophia, representing the city’s lasting influence.

Pergamon in Myth

Pergamon, an ancient city in Asia Minor’s Mysia area, can trace its mythical roots back to Telephus, the son of the legendary hero Heracles. This relationship, however, is less clear in the classical Greek mythological canon, as the city is not explicitly named in the early mythic traditions. Instead, Pergamon’s founding myths are intertwined with the larger fabric of the Trojan epic cycle and stories about the Trojan War. The adaption of many narratives, each connecting the city’s history with notable people from Greek mythology, reinforced the relationship between Pergamon and the myth of Telephus.

Founding of Pergamon: Depiction from the Telephos Frieze of the Pergamon Altar

The Telephos frieze on the vast Pergamon Altar is a remarkable visual portrayal of Pergamon’s fabled basis. This massive work of art, created during King Eumenes II’s reign in the second century BCE, depicts Telephus’ heroic story. The frieze depicts the fabled figure vividly, emphasizing not just his relationship with Heracles but also the city’s tie to Greek myth’s heroic age. Telephus is shown as a major figure of power and endurance in the frieze, reflecting the city’s ascent to importance and desire to identify with the grandeur of mythical heroes.

Despite its origins in the Epic Cycle, the tale of Telephus is rarely mentioned in Greek mythology during the archaic and classical periods. Nonetheless, its ties to Pergamon are evident, and the city’s fabled story is inextricably linked to the heroic traditions of the Trojan War. After receiving advice from an oracle, Telephus travels to Mysia in quest of his mother, where he becomes King Teuthras’ son-in-law or foster-son. He finally inherits the kingdom of Teuthrania, which includes the territory between Pergamon and the mouth of the Caicus River. This territorial connection to the larger mythological environment places Pergamon in the orbit of legendary narratives, albeit in a rather peripheral manner.

Telephus and the Trojan War: A Complicated Mythological Legacy

While Telephus plays an important role in the Trojan War story, his direct involvement with the conflict is minimal. Telephus, despite his ancestral ties to the heroic past, refuses to take part in the fight, much to the dismay of the Greek forces. However, his son, Eurypylus, becomes a key player in the Trojan War, fighting heroically for the Trojans. Several tragic works, including those by Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, explore the myth of Eurypylus, a descendant of Teuthrania’s royal line. Despite these literary treatments, the city of Pergamon does not emerge as a central figure in these narratives.

The story of Telephus is fragmentary, with discrepancies and omissions that confound the myth’s application to the city’s genesis story. Although the people of Pergamon revered Telephus, as demonstrated by their tributes to him, his son Eurypylus is conspicuously absent from the city’s principal mythological records. Furthermore, the grave of Telephus’ mother, Auge, was near the Caicus River in Pergamon, indicating that the city was significant in the Telephus story. Despite this, Pergamon’s participation in the Trojan War cycle remained minor, with no notable legendary occurrences directly related to the city during the conflict.

The Myth of Pergamus: A Late Addition to the City’s Foundation

In a later, more manufactured version of the city’s fabled origins, Pergamus appears as a major player. Pergamus is the grandson of Achilles through his father Neoptolemus, as well as the grandson of Eetion, the king of Thebe, through his mother Andromache. Following Troy’s destruction, Pergamus and his mother flee to Mysia, where he assassinates the local ruler of Teuthrania and names the city after himself. This tale establishes Pergamus as a key figure in the Trojan War cycle, cementing the city’s mythical status as a site associated with Troy’s heroes.

This version of the myth, said to have originated in the 3rd century BCE, serves to draw a more direct link between Pergamon and the legendary figures of the Trojan War. While Pergamus’ role is subordinate to that of other, more important heroes, the city began to revere him after his death, erecting a heroon (a shrine or temple) in his honor. In other versions of the myth, a less heroic version of Pergamus emerges, in which a man named Grynos, Eurypylus’ son, founds the city in return for a favor.

Despite the later origin of this myth, Pergamus’ involvement in the Trojan War, as well as his affiliation with Achilles and Andromache, became an important aspect of Pergamon’s identity. This mythic foundation, while less entrenched in previous Greek epic traditions, gave the city a sense of status and legitimacy by allowing it to claim a direct link to the famous heroes of Homer’s Iliad.

Pergamon’s Legacy and the Genealogical Connection to Heracles

For the rulers of Pergamon, the most important mythological connection was not with Pergamus or Eurypylus, but with the city’s claimed pedigree from Heracles. The Attalid dynasty, which rose to power in Pergamon in the third century BCE, attempted to legitimize their authority by emphasizing their divine heritage. This genealogical link to Heracles was carefully crafted to boost the dynasty’s reputation by linking it with the hero’s mythical stature and the larger Hellenistic tradition of dynastic self-legitimization.

The Attalids were not alone in claiming lineage from Heracles. Other Hellenistic dynasties, such as Egypt’s Ptolemies and Macedon’s Antigonids, associated themselves with heroes to strengthen their influence. The Seleucids, on the other hand, claimed to be descended from Apollo. These claims to divine lineage were more than just symbolic; they were crucial to these dynasties’ political and cultural identities, establishing their authority to rule in a civilization that valued legendary legacy.

By emphasizing their link to Heracles, the Attalids sought to establish themselves within the prestigious tradition of divine rulership established by Alexander the Great, who notably claimed ancestry from the hero through his father, King Philip II of Macedon. The Attalids, in turn, positioned themselves as rightful heirs to this tradition, relying on their relationship to Heracles to secure their power in the eyes of both their subjects and their opponents.

The Cult of Telephus and the City’s Poetic Identity

The citizens of Pergamon enthusiastically embraced their city’s fabled character, referring to themselves as the Telephidai (Telephus’ descendants) and designating it as the “Telephian city.” This poetic appellation associated the city not only with the hero Telephus, but also with the larger epic traditions of Homer’s Iliad and the Trojan War. Through this deliberate cultivation of their legendary identity, the Pergamenes tried to identify themselves with the grandeur of the heroic age, cementing their city’s reputation as a historical and cultural landmark.

This association with the Pergamon myth grew stronger during the Roman Empire. Pergamus was hailed as a “new Pergamus,” a symbol of renewal and continuity in the larger Hellenistic world. The picture of Pergamus appeared on civic coins, cementing the city’s mythological past in its tangible culture. This was a deliberate effort to create a narrative of continuity and legitimacy, with the city’s rulers relying on well-known stories about the Trojan War and the heroic age to boost their reputation and power.

The Rediscovery of Pergamon

The ancient city of Pergamon, once a magnificent center of Hellenistic civilization, only emerged in written records centuries after its heyday. The city’s first documented mention dates back to the 13th century, ushering in an intriguing voyage through history that would engage explorers, scholars, and archaeologists. Pergamon’s rediscovery has occurred throughout centuries of exploration, culminating in meticulous documentation and excavation of its spectacular ruins.

The Early Travelers: From the 15th Century to the 17th Century

Ciriaco de’ Pizzicolli, a Renaissance scholar, visited Asia Minor in the 15th century and was among the first significant persons to draw attention to Pergamon. His views, however brief, inspired curiosity about this ancient site, which would only expand with time. By the 17th century, the exploration of the Levant had drawn additional scholars and visitors, including Thomas Smith, who visited the region in 1668 and produced the most thorough description of Pergamon to that date. Smith’s accounts were critical in forming a picture of the city’s remnants, and other explorers such as Jacob Spon and George Wheler were unable to add much new material to Smith’s thorough tale.

These early records helped build the groundwork for the study of Pergamon, but it wasn’t until the late 18th century that a more organized scholarly interest in the ancient city began to emerge.

Scholarly Pursuits in the 18th Century: A Quest for Knowledge

The zeal for exploration and the study of ancient history grew during the 18th century. Scholars and diplomats began to visit Pergamon in order to better understand its ruins and add to the increasing corpus of information about ancient civilizations. Marie-Gabriel-Florent-Auguste de Choiseul-Gouffier, who served as the French ambassador to the Sublime Porte in Istanbul from 1784 to 1791, was also an avid traveller and scholar. His research on Asia Minor, notably his time examining the ruins of Pergamon, influenced the scholarly approach to studying the region’s history.

At the turn of the nineteenth century, scientific efforts to chronicle the ruins of Pergamon increased. Charles Robert Cockerell, an English architect and tourist, contributed significantly to our understanding of the city’s architecture, while Otto Magnus von Stackelberg, a Finnish architect, created useful sketches of the site. However, it was Charles Texier, a French architect and archeologist, who produced the first detailed description of Pergamon’s monuments. His work, which appeared in the second book of Description de l’Asie Mineure, includes detailed plans, elevations, and views of the city and its ruins, providing the first substantial description of Pergamon in modern times.

The 19th Century: Excavations and the Unveiling of the Great Altar

The mid-19th century was a watershed moment in the history of Pergamon’s rediscovery. Carl Humann, a German engineer, made his first visit to the site in 1864-5, and his interest in the location would define the excavation’s destiny. Humann’s engineering training led him to do thorough topographical studies and planning for the construction of a road connecting Pergamon and Dikili, but his focus swiftly shifted to the ancient city’s archaeological significance.

Humann returned to Pergamon in 1869 to conduct a more thorough investigation of the city’s remains. His efforts resulted in the discovery of two remnants of a great frieze, subsequently identified as being from Zeus’ Great Altar. This discovery piqued the scholarly community’s interest, but its true significance was not appreciated until much later. When Alexander Conze took over the department of ancient sculpture at the Royal Museums of Berlin, he launched an excavation and preservation campaign centered on the Great Altar and other important city monuments.

Humann’s excavation work at Pergamon continued, and by 1875, he had discovered notable inscriptions, including the Architrave inscription of the Temple of Demeter. However, it was his efforts at the shrine of Zeus in 1878 that would have the greatest impact. Humann’s team discovered further reliefs during the next eight years, which they later moved to Berlin. These finds would later become the main collection of the Pergamon Museum, which opened to the public in 1907 to showcase the splendor of Pergamon’s architectural and sculptural heritage.

Early 20th Century: Further Excavations and Major Discoveries

Under the direction of archaeologists such as Wilhelm Dörpfeld, who was vital in discovering many of the city’s most notable structures, excavations proceeded in the early twentieth century. Between 1900 and 1911, Dörpfeld’s crew discovered the Lower Agora, the House of Attalos, the Gymnasium, and the Sanctuary of Demeter, yielding crucial insights into the ancient city’s plan. However, the onset of World War I delayed his work, putting excavations on hold for several years.

Following the war, excavation work began at Pergamon under the direction of Theodor Wiegand, who oversaw the efforts from 1927 to 1939. Wiegand’s team concentrated on excavating the upper city, the Asklepieion, and the Red Basilica, expanding our historical understanding of the city’s evolution. However, once again, the Second World War halted progress, delaying additional work until the late 1950s.

Mid-20th Century to Present: Preservation and Continued Exploration

Archaeologists continued to work at Pergamon after World War II, particularly on the Asklepieion, an ancient healing complex associated with the god Asclepius. From 1957 to 1968, Erich Boehringer directed large excavations and surveys, greatly contributing to our understanding of the lower city and its surroundings. His effort was critical in preserving Pergamon’s material remnants and expanding our understanding of the city’s civic layout, especially its intricate water management system.

In 1971, Wolfgang Radt took over the excavation efforts, focusing on residential buildings and technical features of the city. Under his supervision, research into the water supply system and conservation programs became top priorities, as these were critical to understanding how Pergamon supported its once-thriving population of 200,000 people.

Since 2006, Felix Pirson has overseen the ongoing excavations, uncovering fresh details about Pergamon’s urban organization and history. His team’s work have shed light on household life in the city and revealed more about the architectural achievements that helped Pergamon become an exemplary metropolis of ancient times.

A New Chapter: Recent Discoveries and the Bergama Museum

The narrative of Pergamon’s rediscovery continues. Archaeologists discovered a spectacular discovery in May 2022: a 1,800-year-old mosaic with geometric designs uncovered near the Red Basilica. This find is just one of many continuing discoveries that reveal Pergamon’s magnificence.

The wealth of items discovered throughout the years is currently stored in museums all around the world, with the Pergamon Museum in Berlin containing the most important collections. Following World War I, the Bergama Museum in Turkey was constructed to display artifacts from subsequent excavations. These findings continue to deepen our understanding of this once-great metropolis, ensuring that Pergamon’s legacy lives on for future generations.

Main sights of  Pergamon

Pergamon Altar

The most famous structure from the ancient city of Pergamon is the massive altar, also known as the Great Altar, which demonstrates the ancient Greeks’ creativity and artistic talent. The altar, most likely devoted to the gods Zeus and Athena, was constructed not just as a place of worship but also as a vast visual narrative, as seen by the colossal frieze that formerly ornamented it. While the altar’s foundations remain in the Upper City of Pergamon, the stunning remains of the Pergamon frieze, which once adorned its outer construction, are now on show at the Pergamon Museum in Berlin, where they have been painstakingly restored.

Foundations of the Pergamon Altar

To lay a level foundation for the altar, the builders cleverly designed a sequence of terraces that altered the topography, ensuring that the altar was aligned with the neighboring Temple of Athena. The altar was an imposing monument, measuring roughly 36 x 33 meters, with its exterior surface depicting the Gigantomachy—the terrible conflict between the Olympian gods and the Giants. This enormous frieze, which measures 113 meters in length and rises 2.3 meters in height, is the second longest surviving frieze from antiquity, behind only the Parthenon Frieze in Athens. The altar was accessible via a 20-meter-wide staircase on its western side, which led to a colonnaded higher building. This upper portion had a colonnaded courtyard surrounded by another frieze commemorating the life of Pergamon’s legendary founder, Telephus. Notably, this second frieze was smaller in scale, spanning approximately 1.6 meters in height, allowing for a clear visual separation between the external and interior images.

The Pergamon Altar is significant not just for its architectural and artistic achievements, but also because of its religious resonance. The confidence of the Pergamon believers, extolled in the Book of Revelation for their endurance in a city that “dwells where Satan’s throne is,” is sometimes taken as a reference to the altar, which has a throne-like appearance.

Theatre of Pergamon

The Theatre of Pergamon, built in the 3rd century BC and capable of seating up to 10,000 people, is well-known as one of the world’s steepest stages. The theatre’s design, which stands 36 meters above the surrounding environment, exemplifies Greco-Roman engineering prowess by harnessing the natural topography to create a breathtaking and dramatic sitting space. The koilon (seating area) is split into 78 rows of chairs by two horizontal pathways and then vertically by staircases. A large terrace, 247 meters long and up to 17.4 meters wide, is located beneath the theatre and is surrounded by a stoa. Visitors could enter the Dionysus temple at the northern end of the theatre from this terrace, which provided an unobstructed view of the scenery. The theatre’s initial design, which lacked the usual circular orchestra found in Greek theaters, incorporated a stage framework that could be disassembled between performances. In the first century BC, a permanent marble stage was built, adding to the theatre’s splendor.

The Temple of Trajan

The Temple of Trajan, also known as the Traianeum, crowns Pergamon’s citadel at its highest point. The temple was dedicated not only to Emperor Trajan but also to Zeus Philios, as both gods were revered here. The temple was built on a 2.9-meter-high platform and sat atop a vaulted terrace. It had a Corinthian peripteros design with six columns on the short sides and nine columns on the long sides. The temple was a testimony to Roman architectural skill, surrounded by a stoa to the north and plain ashlar walls to the east and west. Excavators discovered remains of statues depicting Trajan and Hadrian, providing vital insights into the structure’s artistic and theological value.

Temple of Dionysus

The Temple of Dionysus, devoted to the deity of wine and revelry, is located on the northern end of the theatre terrace. The temple, built in the second century BC, was part of a larger architectural project performed by the Attalids, who proclaimed Dionysus the principal deity of their dynasty. The marble temple was an Ionic prostyle temple with a great stairway of twenty-five steps leading up to the temple’s entrance. Only remains of the structure exist today, with the majority of the visible elements going back to a later rebuild under emperors Caracalla or Hadrian.

The Temple of Athena

The Temple of Athena is one of Pergamon’s oldest and most significant temples, dating back to the fourth century BC. The temple was a Doric peripteros design with six columns on the short sides and ten on the long sides, dedicated to the goddess of wisdom and war. The temple’s foundations are still visible today, providing insight into the architectural style and magnificence of the time. Its unfluted columns, which retain bossage, are remarkable for their time, giving the temple a distinct visual character. Eumenes II erected a two-story stoa on three sides of the temple, with reliefs commemorating military victories adorning the higher levels. The northern stoa most likely held the famed Library of Pergamon, which was second in size only to the Library of Alexandria.

The Library of Pergamon

The Library of Pergamon, once one of the largest libraries in the ancient world, housed an impressive collection of at least 200,000 scrolls. The actual site of the library is debatable, but it is often assumed to have been in the annex of the Sanctuary of Athena’s northern stoa. The library was a learning center, with works that rivaled those of Alexandria. Inscriptions unearthed in the gymnasium area imply that the library was also present. Regardless of its actual location, the library’s importance to Pergamon’s cultural and intellectual life cannot be emphasized.

The Sanctuary of Asclepius

The Sanctuary of Asclepius, devoted to the god of medicine, is located at the foot of the Acropolis, some three kilometers south. This sanctuary was accessible via an 820-meter-long colonnaded sacred path, where patients came to seek divine intervention for their maladies. The Asclepius shrine is well-known for its healing powers, with patients frequently describing heavenly visitation in their dreams in which the god prescribed treatments. The site also features numerous dedications, including miniature terracotta body pieces that represent the curing of various ailments. Galen, a renowned Roman physician, worked at the Asclepius sanctuary, boosting its status as a medical powerhouse.

The Red Basilica (Serapis Temple)

The Red Basilica, located approximately a kilometer south of the Acropolis, is one of the most spectacular ancient Pergamon monuments still standing today. The Temple of Isis, also known as Serapis, is made up of a massive main temple flanked by two towers. The temple complex, originally utilized for religious rites, includes a succession of courtyards, pools, and stoas as part of its magnificent architecture. The edifice later became connected with the martyrdom of Saint Antipas, Pergamon’s first Christian bishop, who was burned alive by Serapis believers. This sad occurrence is documented in Christian tradition and is a significant element of the temple’s history.

Infrastructure and Housing in Pergamon

Pergamon, an ancient city in modern-day Turkey, exhibits a paradigm of urban development that combined practical necessity and architectural aspiration. The city’s evolution from an ancient village to a fortified urban center was not accidental; it was the consequence of careful planning and imaginative leadership. As we look into Pergamon’s infrastructure and housing, we can see how the city evolved to meet the demands of both military defense and civic life, with its rulers’ ambitious vision directing its expansion.

The Strategic Expansion of Pergamon

The tale of Pergamon’s urban growth begins with Philetairos, the city’s first king, who worked to transform a small defensive village into a fortified urban entity. Philetairos or his successor, Attalos I, constructed an extensive wall around the upper city, enclosing crucial locations including the plateau to the south and the upper agora. However, as the city grew, it became evident that space within these fortifications would not be sufficient. As a result, housing expanded beyond the city’s fortified bounds, testing the limitations of its infrastructure.

The city’s layout was adjusted under Attalos I’s reign to satisfy the population’s expanding demands. The streets were widening, and monumentalization began in earnest. This procedure involved the construction of public structures, ensuring that Pergamon could meet both military and civilian demands. Under Eumenes II and Attalos II, a new city wall was built that contained the massive Gate of Eumenes and expanded southward to cover the entire hill, forming a safe barrier around the city that went all the way to the Selinus River.

The city’s steep topography provided both a problem and a unique opportunity. The site’s steep slopes needed elaborate street planning, including serpentine, hairpin twists that aided mobility through the tough terrain. As development progressed, the city underwent extensive terracing and cliff-face work to make room for buildings and agoras. Because of space constraints, new constructions were often placed on top of older ones.

The Roman Influence: A New City Beyond the Walls

Under Roman authority, Pergamon expanded once again. This time, a new area was created west of the Selinus River, complete with its own infrastructure—baths, theaters, stadiums, and sanctuaries—to suit the expanding Roman presence. The absence of external dangers during this time allowed for more unrestrained development, with no city walls to limit expansion. This new sector exhibited not only the Roman taste for grandeur, but also the adaptability of Pergamon’s infrastructure to many cultural and political influences.

Housing: The Hellenistic Home in Pergamon

Pergamon’s houses, notably from the Hellenistic period, show the city’s social and architectural interests. The classic Hellenistic house in Pergamon was built around a central, square courtyard, which remained popular far into Philetairos’ rule. These dwellings were commonly one or two stories tall, with the principal rooms located on the northern side of the courtyard. A large colonnade or hallway on the north side would lead to foyers with entrance to other rooms.

Given the city’s geography, the layout of rooms within a house varied, with each residence’s design tailored to the limits of the terrain and previous building. Not every house followed the same design. Some, like as the Prostas houses at Priene, had a colonnaded façade, while others had vast columned halls and a second storey with stairs. The courtyards, frequently fitted with cisterns, collected rainwater from sloping roofs, an ingenious solution to the city’s steep inclines.

The construction of houses under Eumenes II is especially impressive, with city blocks of around 35 by 45 metres. However, the topography dictated that each dwelling differed in size and layout, demanding a flexible approach to urban planning that could handle Pergamon’s uneven environment.

Open Spaces: The Heart of Civic Life

The creation of open spaces was an important aspect of Pergamon’s municipal life. Under Philetairos, the Acropolis was the main point for public events, and the Upper Agora, located at the southern extremity of the Acropolis, eventually became an important location for both commerce and ceremony. During Attalos I’s reign, the Temple of Zeus was built in the Upper Agora, transforming it into a religious center.

Under Eumenes II, the city expanded, and the Upper Agora developed further. The marketplace expanded, and the Upper Agora’s position as a commercial center became more prominent. This period witnessed the construction of trade halls, as well as the addition of the ‘West Chamber,’ which most likely served as a market administration facility. The Upper Agora became a center of not only trade but also public spectacle, surrounded by colossal constructions such as the Temple of Zeus and the Pergamon Altar, which would dominate the area.

The Lower Agora, built by Eumenes II, was a large, multilevel marketplace. This 80-meter-long, 55-meter-wide facility was built to serve the city’s booming commercial activity. The agora was dug into the rugged hillside and had three levels, with stores, halls, and various spaces on the upper and middle floors. The Lower Agora was a vital arena for the exchange of commerce, ideas, and culture that remained essentially intact until the Late Antiquity.

Streets and Bridges: Engineering Feats in Pergamon

Pergamon’s streets were both an engineering marvel and a necessary component of the city’s expansion. With its twisting, serpentine course designed to handle the steep inclines, the main street that ran up the Acropolis was a defining feature of the urban plan. This significant road was flanked with shops and warehouses, and it was built with high-quality andesite blocks, some of which were up to 5 meters wide. The street’s drainage system allowed rainfall to flow downhill, demonstrating the city’s scrupulous attention to environmental demands.

The roughly 200-meter-long Pergamon Bridge, one of Antiquity’s largest bridge substructures, demonstrates the Roman influence on the city’s infrastructure. This bridge, near the Red Basilica, is a superb example of Roman engineering, built to cross a deep valley and connect the city’s many districts.

Water Supply: Innovation in Hydraulics

Pergamon’s water supply system was efficient and advanced. A network of cisterns and ceramic pipes supplied water to the city’s residents, with Hellenistic pipes supplying an amazing 30,000 to 35,000 cubic meters of water per day. The Madradağ aqueduct, which transported water over 40 kilometers, was a spectacular engineering feat. The aqueduct system incorporated a pressurized lead pipe, allowing water to rise to the height of the Acropolis without the use of external pumps. This hydraulic inventiveness guaranteed that Pergamon’s citizens had a consistent and dependable source of water, even in the most difficult terrain.

Notable People of the Ancient City of Pergamon

Pergamon, an ancient Greek city known for its intellectual and cultural achievements, was home to a number of notable figures whose contributions ranged across art, philosophy, science, and religion. From sculptors who formed the classical artistic canon to philosophers whose ideas would reverberate for generations, the people linked with Pergamon provide witness to the city’s antiquity. Here, we look at the lives and legacies of some of the city’s most famous personalities.

Epigonus (3rd Century BC), Greek Sculptor

Epigonus, a Hellenistic sculptor, is considered one of the most important artists in ancient Pergamon. Active in the third century BC, his works represented the highly passionate and dramatic style that characterized much Hellenistic art. His most famous work, the Gaulish Trumpeter, exemplifies the mastery of form and psychological depth that marked his sculptural style. Epigonus’ ability to transmit profound human emotion via marble cemented his place in Greek art history, and his impact can be seen in the works of following painters who attempted to reproduce the energy and expressiveness of his style.

Andronicus of Pergamum (2nd Century BC), Attalid Ambassador to Rome

Andronicus of Pergamum, a powerful political figure in the second century BC, was instrumental in the diplomacy between the Greek city-state and Rome. As an envoy for the Attalid dynasty, he was tasked with negotiating with the Roman Republic during a moment of both conflict and opportunity. His diplomatic efforts helped to cement Pergamon’s position as an important ally of Rome, granting the city autonomy in exchange for military and political support. Though little is known about his personal life, Andronicus’ political acumen and ability to handle the intricate links between the East and West cemented his place in Pergamon’s history.

Biton of Pergamon (2nd or 3rd Century BC), Greek Writer and Engineer

Biton of Pergamon, a polymath from the second or third century BC, is well-known for his contributions to literature and engineering. Although nothing is known about his life, his works were highly valued in the ancient world. As a writer, Biton created pieces that combined technical expertise and creative expression. His engineering innovations, while mostly lost to history, were reported to be ahead of his day, with some accounts crediting him with advances in mechanical design and hydraulics. Biton’s legacy is one of intellectual flexibility, embracing the spirit of inquiry that characterized the Hellenistic age.

Hegesinus of Pergamon (c. 160 BC), Academic Philosopher

Hegesinus was a philosopher active around 160 BC who belonged to the Academic school of thought. Little is known about his life, but he is widely credited with helping to promote Platonism in Pergamon. His work was on epistemology, or the study of knowledge, and he was noted for his rigorous ways of investigating the nature of truth and perception. Hegesinus’ philosophical inquiries, while not fully recorded, had an important role in sustaining Plato’s intellectual traditions in the East, influencing succeeding thinkers of the Roman world.

Sosus of Pergamon (2nd Century BC), Greek Mosaic Artist

Sosus of Pergamon, a prominent Greek mosaic artist from the second century BC, transformed the art of mosaic with his unique techniques and designs. His most renowned work, the Unswept Floor, is a floor mosaic that displays wasted food and other objects in breathtaking detail, demonstrating the artist’s ability to render textures and fine details. Sosus’ work was extremely influential, establishing the standard for mosaic artists across the Hellenistic world. His ability to show common things with such realism and elegance was a remarkable accomplishment in the history of painting.

Apollodorus (1st Century BC), Rhetor and Teacher to Augustus

Apollodorus, a rhetor and educator from the first century BC, was instrumental in shaping the education of one of Rome’s most famous emperors, Augustus. Apollodorus, renowned for his rhetorical prowess and extensive knowledge of oratory, taught Augustus the art of persuasion, a necessary talent for any leader. His lectures had a long-term impact on the emperor’s political career, especially in the preparation of speeches and public addresses. Though Apollodorus’ own works are mostly gone, his influence on the future emperor is undeniable, and his role as a teacher exemplifies the value of intellectual and rhetorical training in Roman society.

Cratippus of Pergamon (1st Century BC), Peripatetic Philosopher

Cratippus of Pergamon, a philosopher from the first century BC, was a leading figure in Aristotle’s Peripatetic school. His works and teachings, while not well preserved, are known to have contributed to the continuous development of Aristotelian thought during the Hellenistic period. Cratippus was an ardent supporter of Aristotle’s philosophy, notably his ethical and political views, and his impact extended to both his contemporaries and subsequent philosophers. His contribution to the preservation and interpretation of Aristotelian philosophy exemplifies Pergamon’s intellectual vigor at the time.

Antipas of Pergamum (1st Century AD), Christian Martyr and Saint

Antipas of Pergamum, a Christian martyr and saint from the first century AD, is an important figure in the early Christian history. According to Christian legend, Antipas was a bishop of Pergamon who was murdered for his unyielding faith during Emperor Domitian’s rule. The Book of Revelation describes him as a faithful witness to Christ who faced persecution and death for his convictions. His martyrdom helped to promote Christianity in Asia Minor, and various Christian churches regard him as a saint.

Aristocles (1st Century AD), Greek Sophist

Aristocles, a Greek sophist from the first century AD, is noted for his contributions to rhetoric and philosophy. As a sophist, Aristocles valued the art of persuasion and the role of rhetoric in changing public opinion. His philosophical teachings, while not publicly known, were highly appreciated in intellectual circles at the time. Aristocles’ work illustrates the sophistication of Pergamon’s intellectual culture, which used rhetoric and philosophy to confront current political and social challenges.

Aelius Nicon (2nd Century AD), Greek Architect and Builder

Aelius Nicon, a prominent architect from the second century AD, designed several noteworthy structures at Pergamon. Nicon was known for his creative architectural style, which comprised temples, public buildings, and other civic constructions that combined functionality with aesthetic beauty. His designs reflected the Roman influence on Greek architecture at the time, and his legacy may be seen in the magnificence of the buildings that remain as part of Pergamon’s archaeological ruins.

Aeschrion of Pergamon (2nd Century AD), Physician and Tutor to Galen

Aeschrion of Pergamon, a distinguished physician in the second century AD, mentored the well-known doctor Galen. His medical lectures helped shape Galen’s early career, and Aeschrion’s emphasis on observation and empirical inquiry paved the way for Galen’s eventual contributions to medicine. Though Aeschrion’s own works have been largely lost to antiquity, his impact on the evolution of ancient medical knowledge is indisputable, and his function as a teacher of one of history’s greatest physicians secures his place in Pergamon’s intellectual history.

Galen (c. 129–200/216 AD), Greek Physician

Galen, one of the most influential physicians in antiquity, was born in Pergamon around 129 AD. His comprehensive medical publications, which covered a wide range of topics such as anatomy, pharmacology, and surgery, served as the foundation for centuries of Western medical knowledge. Galen’s emphasis on empirical observation, as well as his incorporation of Hippocratic principles into his practice, cemented his reputation as a towering figure in medical history. His influence lasted throughout the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance, when his books were regarded required reading in medical school.

Oribasius (c. 320–403 AD), Greek Physician

Oribasius, a 4th-century Greek physician who studied under Galen, rose to become one of the most renowned medical experts of his day. His medical writings, particularly his thorough Collections, had a significant impact on the preservation and spread of Galen’s medical principles. Oribasius is also noted for his position in the Roman Empire’s medical administration, where he was Emperor Julian’s personal physician. His contributions to medicine, notably in the arrangement of medical information, helped to ensure that traditional medicinal traditions remained viable in late antiquity.

Aedesius (4th Century), Neoplatonic Philosopher

Aedesius, a 4th-century Neoplatonic philosopher, was a pivotal player in the evolution of Neoplatonism throughout the late Roman Empire. Aedesius, a pupil of Iamblichus, contributed to the philosophical school by emphasizing the mystical and metaphysical components of Plato’s works. His views on the nature of the soul and the hierarchy of being impacted many later philosophers, and his status in Pergamon’s intellectual circles contributed to the city’s reputation as a center of philosophical thinking.

Sosipatra (4th Century), Neoplatonic Philosopher

Sosipatra, a notable Neoplatonic philosopher from the fourth century, was noted for her mystical teachings and role as a spiritual leader in Pergamon. As Aedesius’ wife, she played an important role in the spread of Neoplatonic ideas, notably those concerning the divine and the nature of reality. Sosipatra’s impact as a female philosopher in a male-dominated intellectual society was enormous, and her contributions to the development of Neoplatonism were critical to the movement’s progress during this time period.

Telephus, Greek Grammarian

Telephus, a Greek grammarian from Pergamon, made important contributions to the study of language and literature in antiquity. Telephus, known for his work on Greek grammar and structure, was an important player in Pergamon’s intellectual life during the first century AD. His writings contributed to a better knowledge of Greek syntax and morphology, which influenced succeeding scholars and grammarians.