Hierapolis, derived from the Greek term (Ἱεράπoλις) meaning “holy city,” is an ancient site located adjacent to the travertine terraces of Pamukkale in contemporary Denizli, Turkey. It was formerly a significant center of the religion of Cybele, the Anatolian mother goddess, during the Phrygian era. The city’s advantageous location adjacent to other ancient cities such as Laodicea and Tripolis in the Caria area situates it inside a culturally and historically significant nexus. Ancient geographers, such as Strabo and Ptolemy, acknowledged Hierapolis as a city profoundly embedded in Phrygian traditions, designating it as a site of significant cultural and religious relevance.

The 2016 archaeological dig indicated that habitation in the area originates from the Iron Age. Nonetheless, it was during the Phrygian era that the region began to attain significance. Originally, the location served as a sacred center devoted to Cybele, the mother goddess of Anatolia. This temple, founded by indigenous populations along the Lycus River (present-day Phrygian River), would serve as the basis for the subsequent development of the city of Hierapolis. Upon the arrival of Greek colonists, they expanded the existing town, progressively incorporating their religious customs and merging the cult of Cybele into Greek mythology. Over time, the veneration of Cybele grew integrated with the Greek pantheon, and the temple became linked to Hades and Persephone, assuming a new identity as the Plutonium—a sanctuary for the deities of the underworld.

The exact circumstances of Hierapolis’s founding are limited, however it is generally acknowledged that Eumenes II of the Kingdom of Pergamon founded the city in the early 2nd century BCE. The city was called in tribute to Hiera, the queen of the Amazons and spouse of Telephos, the mythical founder of Pergamon. Hierapolis thrived according to Hellenistic urban planning principles, preserving a distinctly Greek identity until the catastrophic earthquake in 60 AD, under the reign of Roman Emperor Nero. The earthquake that impacted the region with significant intensity resulted in a total reconstruction of the city. Subsequent to this disastrous tragedy, Hierapolis saw a profound shift, relinquishing its Hellenistic origins and embracing the architectural and urban characteristics typical of Roman cities.

Hierapolis maintained its significance throughout the decline of the Roman Empire. In the 4th century AD, during the Byzantine era, the city became a prominent Christian hub. During this period, Hierapolis was established as a bishopric, a center of ecclesiastical authority. Moreover, the martyrdom of the apostle Philip in the 80s AD solidified the city’s significance in early Christian history. Following the city’s subjugation to Byzantine authority in 395 AD, its significance as a center of Christian devotion persisted in its ascent. Hierapolis retained its religious importance until the 12th century, when it was included into the domain of the Anatolian Seljuks.

The ruins of Hierapolis still exemplify the city’s profound history, religious importance, and architectural accomplishments. The ancient necropolises, the Domitian Road, and many monumental gates are among the numerous well-preserved buildings. The city features a remarkable theater, the Temple of Apollo, and the revered waters of the ancient pool, which have drawn people for centuries due to its aesthetic appeal and alleged health advantages.

The ancient theater of Hierapolis exemplifies Greek architectural design, partially hewn from the hillside, and provides a stunning vista of the surrounding terrain. Theater construction commenced in 62 AD, immediately following the 60 AD earthquake, and persisted during the Hadrianic era, culminating in completion in 206 AD during the Severan period. The theater, with a seating capacity of 9,500, is an architectural masterpiece. The design features 50 rows of seats arranged in a semi-circular configuration, separated by staircases and embellished with elaborate marble reliefs illustrating legendary scenes. These reliefs exemplify the impact of Hellenistic sculpture, noted for its lively and expressive figures. The theater’s configuration, featuring an elevated platform and numerous entrances, suggests it served for both theatrical performances and gladiatorial contests, a prevalent type of entertainment in ancient Rome.

The necropolises encircling Hierapolis are essential for comprehending the city’s religious and cultural customs. The burial grounds are distributed to the north and south of the city, with more than 2,000 graves identified thus far. The tombs exhibit considerable variation in their structure, from rudimentary rock-carved graves to intricate monuments for the aristocracy. Prominent among these are the tumulus tombs from the Hellenistic period, characterized by conical mounds of soil and stone burial chambers. The most lavish tombs feature marble sarcophagi and inscriptions in Greek, some referencing the veneration of deities.

The Antique Pool, situated in the center of Hierapolis, is one of the city’s most emblematic emblems. Their warm, mineral-laden waters have always been esteemed for their healing powers. Historical records indicate that throughout the Roman Empire, Hierapolis emerged as a prominent health center, drawing tourists in search of remedies for diverse maladies. The pool was constructed by the earthquake in the 7th century, which led to the collapse of the adjacent portico and the formation of the natural spring. Currently, the pool’s waters are lauded for its therapeutic advantages, especially for maladies such as cardiovascular disease, rheumatism, and dermatological issues.

The Temple of Apollo in Hierapolis is located at the Plutonium, a grotto historically regarded as a gateway to the underworld. Worshippers believed they could converse with the underworld deities, and the priestess of Cybele was reputed to be impervious to the lethal fumes emitted by the cave. The temple, despite subsequent renovations, remains a magnificent edifice. The initial foundations are from the late Hellenistic period, while the existing temple was erected in the 3rd century AD. The temple’s design features Doric columns, elaborate marble steps, and architectural details that illustrate the shift from Greek to Roman influences in the area.

The streets and gates of Hierapolis provide insight into the city’s urban design and the incorporation of monumental architecture. The city’s principal thoroughfare extends roughly 1 kilometer from the North Gate to the South Gate, flanked with columned porticos and civic edifices. The gates at both ends of the Boulevard are colossal, featuring intricate inscriptions and archways that delineate the entryway to this old city. Prominent among these is the Domitian Gate, a triumphal arch honoring Emperor Domitian, and the Frontinus Gate, which functions as the grand entry from the north. These gates exhibit the magnificence and refinement of Roman architectural design, characterized by their formidable construction and emblematic inscriptions.

The bathhouses of Hierapolis, notably the renowned Bath Church and the Byzantine Bath, exemplify the significance of hygiene in Roman culture. The Great Bath, situated in the southwestern part of the city, currently accommodates the Hierapolis Archaeological Museum. Constructed in the 2nd century AD, the bathhouse harnessed the area’s plentiful water resources, which were conveyed through the city’s intricate aqueduct system. These baths served as both hygienic centers and social hubs where individuals congregated to unwind and engage in conversation. The large remnants of the baths, encompassing the hypocaust systems and the vestiges of elaborate marble sculptures, provide significant insights into the everyday lives and social customs of the inhabitants of Hierapolis.

History of Hierapolis: A Glimpse into the Ancient Past

Hierapolis, a formerly prosperous metropolis situated in the ancient world, has captivated archaeologists, historians, and tourists for centuries. The picturesque ruins, renowned thermal springs, and extensive history illustrate their importance throughout several eras, from the Iron Age to contemporary excavations.

The Main Street of Hierapolis

The principal thoroughfare of Hierapolis, commonly known as the city’s spine, exemplifies its magnificence during the Roman era. This broad, colonnaded boulevard traverses the historic city, providing insight into the architectural grandeur that once adorned the metropolis. The main street, adorned with enormous columns, impressive edifices, and communal areas, served not merely as a roadway but as an emblem of the city’s affluence, power, and cultural assimilation with the Roman Empire. The street features the remarkable remnants of the theater, bathhouses, and the grand Plutonium, all of which enhance the site’s appeal.

Part of the Archaeological Site of Hierapolis

The archeological site at Hierapolis encompasses a vast area, featuring relics of temples, baths, theaters, and public edifices dispersed over the terrain. The remains serve as a poignant reminder of the city’s intricate history, characterized by multiple levels of occupation over several centuries. The ruins are meticulously preserved, enabling visitors and experts to examine the ancient city in its multiple phases of growth. Excavations have revealed significant structures that illuminate the city’s quotidian existence, religious customs, and its status as a cultural and political hub in the region.

Iron Age

The history of Hierapolis dates to the Iron Age, a time marked by the earliest known communities in the area. In 2016, a team of archaeologists from the Denizli Hierapolis Archaeology Museum discovered the remnants of Iron Age settlement structures at the Northern Necropolis. These structures, particularly round huts, offer significant information into the region’s early habitation patterns. These towns are thought to have thrived on the slopes of Çökelez Mountain, overlooking the vast plains of the Lykos River.

Prior to Greek colonization, the area housed a sacred site devoted to the mother goddess Cybele. This religion, focused on a cave and its adjacent rocks, constituted the foundation of the early settlement. The site was regarded as a location of profound spiritual importance, thought to serve as a portal to the underworld. The vapors released from the cave were seen as possessing supernatural attributes, hence augmenting the site’s religious significance.

Phrygian Temple

The initial significant edifice on the site was a temple devoted to Cybele, the mother goddess of the Phrygians. This temple, constructed in the early 7th century BC, functioned as a central hub for religious activities in the area. The temple was initially utilized by the indigenous populations of the Lycus Valley, and its impact endured long after the arrival of Greek colonists. As Greek culture assimilated, the old cult of Cybele was progressively incorporated into the Greek pantheon, with the temple dedicated to the deity Hades and his spouse Persephone. The cave beneath the temple, notorious for its noxious fumes, became linked to the entrance to the underworld, elevating the temple’s mythological and theological importance.

Hellenistic City

Hierapolis was formally established under the time of Antiochus I of the Seleucid Empire in the 3rd century BC, although its origins extend to prior settlement patterns. The city attained its complete status as a polis during the reign of Eumenes II of Pergamon, who governed from 197 to 160 BC. The city’s renown was established by its superior woolen textiles and dye goods, which were highly valued across the ancient world. The Hellenization of the Phrygian populace reinforced the city’s Greek identity, while yet preserving significant cultural connections to its indigenous heritage.

The Jewish population in Hierapolis thrived during the Hellenistic era, with estimates indicating that over 50,000 Jewish residents resided in the city by 62 BC. Antiochus the Great’s relocation of thousands of Jewish families to the area contributed to Hierapolis’s emergence as a significant hub for Jewish life in antiquity.

Roman Hierapolis

After the Pergamene Kingdom bequeathed its territory to Rome in 133 BC, Hierapolis was incorporated into the Roman province of Asia. Although the city was not established as a Roman colony, it nevertheless saw considerable Roman influence. The Romans executed major construction endeavors in Hierapolis, with numerous edifices exemplifying the magnificence and architectural style of the Roman Empire. The theater, constructed in 129 AD, was notably erected to celebrate a visit by Emperor Hadrian.

In AD 17, a catastrophic earthquake devastated Hierapolis, leaving much of the city in ruins. Nevertheless, the city was reconstructed in the Roman architectural style, with imperial financing enabling the restoration. This rebuilding signaled an era of affluence for Hierapolis, establishing it as a prominent hub for arts, philosophy, and commerce throughout the Roman Empire. The hot springs, celebrated for its therapeutic benefits, consistently drew visitors from over the empire, solidifying the city’s status as a center for health and wellness.

Ecclesiastical History

In the 4th century AD, Christianity commenced its establishment in Hierapolis, progressively supplanting the earlier pagan religions. Evidence of this change is seen in the transformation of the Plutonium, the sacred place dedicated to Hades, which was filled with stones by early Christians as a symbol of their victory over ancient religious rituals. Hierapolis emerged as a prominent hub of Christian activity, where the Apostle Philip spent his final years. Traditionally, Philip was martyred at this location, and a church was constructed to commemorate the spot of his crucifixion.

In the 6th century, Byzantine Emperor Justinian promoted the bishop of Hierapolis to the status of metropolitan, signifying the city’s increasing significance in the Christian realm. The Roman baths of the city were transformed into a Christian basilica, so reinforcing Hierapolis as a hub of Christian worship and influence.

Medieval Hierapolis

The early medieval period was chaotic for Hierapolis, marked by invasions and natural disasters. In the early 7th century, Persian forces devastated the city, and a subsequent earthquake rendered it in ruins. Although the city progressively recuperated, it ultimately succumbed to the dominion of the Seljuk Sultanate of Konya in the 12th century. By the late 14th century, Hierapolis was deserted following a catastrophic earthquake in 1354. The formerly prosperous metropolis was ultimately entombed under a dense stratum of limestone.

Modern Excavations

Interest in Hierapolis was rekindled in the 19th century, when German archaeologist Carl Humann conducted the inaugural significant excavations in 1887. His research revealed substantial areas of the ancient city; however, it was not until the mid-20th century that more methodical excavations commenced. In 1957, Italian archaeologists under the direction of Paolo Verzone commenced extensive excavations at the site, revealing significant structures including Roman bathhouses, an 11th-century courtyard residence, and a multitude of statues and friezes.

The discovery of the renowned white limestone terraces, referred to as Pamukkale, has since transformed Hierapolis into a significant tourist attraction. Despite contemporary development jeopardizing the site’s conservation, initiatives to restore and save the ruins have been implemented in recent decades, guaranteeing that future generations would perpetually encounter the remarkable legacy of Hierapolis.

Throughout many historical periods, Hierapolis has consistently been a city of cultural, religious, and historical importance, with each era imparting a lasting influence on the city’s architectural and cultural landscape.

Significant Structures in Hierapolis

Hierapolis, an ancient city in Phrygia that once flourished, is now celebrated for its extraordinary archaeological remains, highlighting the magnificence of Roman, Byzantine, and earlier Hellenistic architecture. The remarkable attributes of this ancient city, including its notable structures—gates, theatres, temples, baths, and necropolises—provide essential perspectives on its cultural, religious, and social dynamics. These structures served as remarkable achievements in architecture and stood as emblems of Hierapolis’s status as a city devoted to healing and religious worship.

The Main Street and the Gates

During its peak, the Hellenistic city of Hierapolis was built with a carefully organized grid layout, intended to enhance both traffic flow and communication. The main street, extending around 1,500 meters (4,900 feet) long and 13.5 meters (44 feet) wide, served as the key thoroughfare linking the northern and southern sections of the city. This impressive avenue was bordered by an arcade on either side, a characteristic of Hellenistic urban design, offering shaded walkways for pedestrians and shelter from the weather.

The main street, running alongside a cliff that overlooks the travertine terraces, provided stunning vistas of the surrounding landscape. At both ends of the street, monumental gates served as imposing entryways into the city, each flanked by massive square towers constructed from large blocks of stone. The gates served not only a practical purpose but also stood as emblems of the city’s resilience and wealth. The side streets, notably narrower at approximately 3 meters (9.8 feet) in width, diverged from the main street, guiding visitors to different districts within the city.

A particularly remarkable structure is the Domitian Gate, a triumphal arch situated near the northern city gate. Constructed under the rule of the Roman emperor Domitian, this gate features circular towers and three arches, exemplifying the architectural magnificence that defined Hierapolis in the imperial era.

The Frontinus Gate, recognized as the grand entrance to the Roman city, acts as a refined link between the city and the route to Laodicea. This gate leads to a spacious plateia, measuring 14 meters across, that traverses the entire settlement and connects to an exit gate on the far side. The gate is built from meticulously squared travertine blocks, featuring three openings that are framed by arches embellished with understated cornices, and is flanked by two round towers. The Frontinus Gate’s design echoes that of other Hellenistic city gates, like the one in Perge, highlighting a blend of practicality and artistic elegance.

The North Byzantine Gate, a component of a fortification system constructed during Theodosian times in the late 4th century, stands as a grand entrance to the city. The gate, flanked by two square towers, serves as a remarkable example of the military architecture of its time. Constructed using repurposed materials sourced from the Agora, it embodies a practical approach to building. Four large marble brackets, featuring depictions of lions, panthers, and a Gorgon, were found collapsed in front of the gate. These apotropaic elements were probably intended to repel malevolence, endowing the gate with both symbolic and protective importance.

The Theatre

The Theatre of Hierapolis, a remarkable architectural feat, is thought to have been built during the reign of Emperor Hadrian following the catastrophic earthquake of 60 AD. The facade, spanning an impressive 91 meters (300 feet) in length, is mostly preserved, providing insight into the scale and magnificence of Roman entertainment. The cavea, or seating area, had the capacity to hold around 15,000 spectators, featuring 50 rows of seats organized into seven sections, separated by eight intermediate stairways. The auditorium featured a two-level design separated by a diazoma, with two vaulted vomitoria facilitating smooth crowd movement.

In the early 3rd century, under the reign of Septimius Severus, the theatre experienced a notable transformation. The scaenae frons, serving as the backdrop for the stage, was transformed into a grand three-storey structure, complemented by impressive side entry buildings. Sculptural reliefs illustrating mythological themes embellished the various storeys, while dedicatory inscriptions traversed the entablatures, honoring the magnificence of the edifice.

The theatre’s auditorium underwent renovations, featuring the replacement of the original limestone seats with marble ones, and the construction of a high podium in the orchestra area. This transformation aimed to cater to the growing popularity of venationes (wild beast hunts) and gladiatorial contests. Sadly, a significant earthquake in the 7th century resulted in the collapse of the theatre, which ultimately led to the abandonment of Hierapolis. The theatre’s remarkable ruins have captivated European travellers since the 18th century, leading to a wealth of descriptions and engravings.

Temple of Apollo

The Temple of Apollo, devoted to the deity Apollo Lairbenos, served as a pivotal religious edifice in Hierapolis throughout the late Hellenistic era. Apollo, the principal deity of the town, was highly esteemed for his association with the sun god Lairbenos and the oracle god Kareios. While only the remnants of the original Hellenistic temple’s foundations are visible today, the site possesses great archaeological importance.

The temple was built in the Doric style, situated within a peribolos (sacred precinct) that spanned roughly 15 by 20 meters (49 by 66 feet). The temple was encircled by a marble portico, showcasing pilasters embellished with fluted Doric semi-columns and capitals intricately designed with astragal and bead motifs. The temple, positioned on a hillside, underwent reconstruction in the 3rd century AD, adopting a more Roman architectural style and incorporating recycled materials from the original structure. The reconstruction preserved only the marble floor as a lasting remnant of the original temple.

An intriguing aspect of the Temple of Apollo is its connection to the Ploutonion, a nearby sacred site devoted to Pluto, the god of the underworld. The Ploutonion, situated in a geologically active region, released noxious gases that were viewed as a sign of the underworld’s presence. Ancient texts recount the priests of Cybele entering the Ploutonion to showcase their immunity to the lethal fumes, thereby amplifying the mystique and power of the temple.

Ploutonion

Next to the Temple of Apollo, the Ploutonion—commonly referred to as Pluto’s Gate—served as a significant religious site in Hierapolis. A small cave, just big enough for one person to enter, the Ploutonion was famous for its stifling atmosphere, a result of underground carbon dioxide emissions. In ancient times, visitors in search of divine protection would demonstrate their courage by entering the cave, frequently accompanied by priests of Cybele who guided them through the experience. The Ploutonion functioned as both a shrine to Pluto and a profitable source of revenue for the temple, as individuals paid to experience the oracle of Pluto.

The Nymphaeum

The Nymphaeum, situated close to the Temple of Apollo, served as a grand fountain honoring the nymphs. Constructed in the 2nd century AD, this edifice supplied water to the city via a complex system of pipes, catering to the domestic and religious requirements of the residents. The U-shaped design of the Nymphaeum was bordered by statues and shops, with canals flowing beneath the stone-paved road that led to it. Although a significant portion of the structure has been lost, the remaining elements—including the back and side walls—provide a window into its former magnificence.

Necropolis

The extensive necropolis of Hierapolis, extending over 2 kilometers (1.2 miles), is situated beyond the city walls and stands as one of the most preserved ancient burial grounds in Turkey. The necropolis features more than 1,200 tombs, comprising sarcophagi, circular tumuli, and grand family graves. The tombs, made mainly of limestone and marble, showcase various burial practices, from basic graves for ordinary individuals to intricate family tombs intended to commemorate affluent persons.

The northern section of the necropolis features some of the oldest graves, which date back to the Hellenistic period. The tombs of affluent families were frequently built using travertine and adorned with detailed reliefs and epitaphs, illuminating the social and cultural practices of the era. Other tombs, especially in the southern necropolis, show the impact of an earthquake, with certain graves discovered in a collapsed condition.

The Great Baths

The Great Baths of Hierapolis, located around the city’s natural thermal springs, played an essential role in daily life. The baths functioned as a sanctuary for relaxation and a hub for healing, drawing thousands of visitors during the Roman era. The Antique Pool, formed by the earthquake of the 7th century, continues to be a favored destination, providing insight into the ancient bathing experience.

The Basilica Baths, another notable bath complex, was constructed outside the north gate at the start of the 3rd century AD. This structure, transformed into a Christian church in the 5th century, exemplifies the shift of Hierapolis from a pagan city to a Christian community.

Museum of Hierapolis

Located in the center of the ancient city of Hierapolis, the Archaeology Museum serves as a remarkable reflection of the region’s rich and diverse history. Located within the remarkable edifice of the ancient baths since 1984, the museum serves as a refuge for artifacts that traverse centuries, providing an intriguing insight into the civilizations that once flourished in the Lycos Valley and beyond. The museum boasts an extensive collection featuring relics from significant towns like Laodiceia, Colossae, Tripolis, and Attuda, offering a thorough insight into the region’s ancient heritage.

A notable aspect of the museum is its showcase of remarkable Bronze Age craftsmanship, particularly from Beycesultan Hüyük. The artifacts discovered at this site are regarded as exceptional examples of ancient craftsmanship, offering crucial insights into the artistic and technological progress of early civilizations. The collection additionally includes artifacts from the regions of Caria, Pisidia, and Lydia, enhancing the museum’s varied narrative.

The museum features an intriguing combination of spaces, comprising three indoor areas within the Hierapolis Bath, along with open-air sections that previously functioned as the library and gymnasium of the ancient city. The exhibition spaces prominently feature marble and stone artifacts, offering a distinctive contrast to the displays found indoors.

Tombs and Statues Gallery: A Reflection of Ancient Beliefs

The Tombs and Statues Gallery provides insight into the burial practices and religious symbols of the ancient residents of Hierapolis and Laodiceia. The room features a remarkable collection of sarcophagi, statues, gravestones, pedestals, pillars, and inscriptions, each narrating its unique tale of life and death from ancient times. Among the most remarkable exhibits are statues of deities including Tyche, Dionysus, Pan, Asklepios, Isis, Demeter, and Trion. The figures, crafted in the Roman style, are profoundly influenced by the Hellenistic traditions that came before them, providing an intriguing insight into the fusion of cultures and religious beliefs.

The sarcophagus of Arhom stands out as a captivating piece in this gallery, showcasing an exquisite example of the ‘Sidemare’ type. This sarcophagus, featuring an inscription dedicated to Maximilian, is considered one of the most exquisite creations to come from the ancient cities of Lahdi and Laodicia. It serves as a remarkable example of the talent and creativity of ancient sculptors, embodying the spirit of the time through its detailed craftsmanship.

Small Artifacts Gallery: Relics of Everyday Life

The Small Artifacts Gallery invites visitors to explore the daily experiences of ancient civilizations. The artifacts presented here are arranged chronologically, covering more than 4,000 years of history and providing a detailed overview of the cultural and technological advancements that influenced the region. Particular focus is placed on the discoveries from Beycesultan Höyük, an archaeological site that has produced a rich array of artifacts offering insight into early life.

Among the most important items are idols, baked earth bowls, libation cups, seals, and various stone artifacts that were uncovered during excavations conducted by the British Institute of Archaeology. These items provide a distinctive insight into the spiritual and practical dimensions of life in ancient times. The gallery features a variety of artifacts from later periods, such as the Frigan, Hellenistic, Roman, and Byzantine eras. Visitors will discover glass cups, necklaces, gemstones crafted as rings, bracelets, earrings, and earthenware lamps, each offering a glimpse into the craftsmanship and artistry of their era.

A particularly remarkable aspect of the Small Artifacts Gallery is its assortment of ancient coins, organized chronologically to illustrate the development of currency from the 6th century BCE through the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Selçuk, and Ottoman eras. The collection features coins made of gold, silver, and bronze, offering a concrete link to the economic history of the area.

Theatre Gallery: A Portal to Ancient Performances

The Theatre Gallery honors the vibrant cultural life that thrived in Hierapolis, especially highlighting the significance of theater in antiquity. This room showcases an impressive array of decorative pieces from the ancient theater of Hierapolis, with many having been meticulously restored to maintain their intricate details. The reliefs on display, some of which were originally part of the theater’s scenery, provide a captivating glimpse into the mythological themes and performances that enthralled ancient audiences.

Some of the most impressive pieces include the reliefs illustrating the myth of Apollo and Artemis, the festivities of Dionysus, and the coronation of the Roman Emperor Septimius Severus. Additional scenes feature the kidnapping of Persephone by Hades, alongside depictions of deities like Apollo, Leto, Artemis, and Hades, in addition to sculpted sphinxes. These works offer a striking depiction of the intricate weave of mythological tales that were brought to life in the ancient theater.

Alongside these mythological scenes, the gallery features sculpted reliefs that evoke the renowned kings Attalus and Eumenes, along with inscriptions detailing the coronation of the goddess Hierapolis and the resolutions made by the theater assembly. These artifacts illuminate the artistic accomplishments of the era while also revealing the social and political backdrop of the ancient world.