The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır, also known as Diyarbakır Ulu Camii in Turkish and Mizgefta Mezin an Amedê in Kurdish, is a monument reflecting Anatolia’s rich Islamic legacy. The Seljuk sultan Malik-Shah I erected the mosque in the late 11th century on top of an earlier one, carrying on a legacy from the Muslim conquest of Diyarbakır in 639 CE. Some sources consider it to be Islam’s fifth holiest place after the Great Mosque of Damascus, which had a significant effect on its architectural design. It continues to be a dynamic center of faith, embracing four different Islamic traditions and seating up to 5,000 attendees.

The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır is the oldest surviving mosque in Anatolia. Following the Muslim invasion, a church in the city was converted into a temporary place of worship before the mosque was completely rebuilt by Seljuk Sultan Malik-Shah I between 1091 and 1097 CE, as evidenced by an inscription discovered on-site. The mosque has undergone significant changes over the years as a result of natural calamities and numerous restoration efforts by various monarchs. These modifications have left an indelible mark on the structure, reflecting changing creative and architectural sensibilities over time.

The mosque consists of a rectangular courtyard measuring 63 by 30 meters, surrounded by an arcade on the eastern and western sides. The northern side contains additional structures that were erected over time, and the southern side is dominated by a single-aisled prayer hall. A large, stone-paved public plaza adjacent to the mosque’s entryway adds to its majesty.

The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır resembles the Umayyad Mosque of Damascus, which is over a half-century older. The two mosques’ prayer rooms have identical sizes, as well as similar entry designs and layouts. The Umayyad Mosque, one of the oldest Islamic architectural marvels, had a significant influence on later projects, notably Diyarbakır’s mosque.

A fire and earthquake damaged the mosque in 1115 CE (509 AH), necessitating extensive renovation efforts. Inscriptions from 1117-1118 CE (511 AH) on the western side of the courtyard and another from 1162 CE (557 AH) on the eastern side serve as tangible proof of these improvements. These renovations not only renovated the mosque, but also added stylistic elements that enhanced its architectural individuality.

The mosque’s construction incorporates both locally produced basalt and reused components from Byzantine constructions. Antique columns, capitals embellished with vine scroll designs, and traces of Greek inscriptions were incorporated into the mosque’s fabric, emphasizing the region’s historical strata as well as the practice of spolia, which involves reusing components from older constructions to build new structures. This combination of many materials gives the mosque a distinct appearance, flawlessly integrating Islamic and Byzantine influences.

In 1890, an octagonal ablution fountain was installed in the courtyard, improving the mosque’s functioning and scenic appeal. The courtyard remains a prominent feature, hosting a variety of components that illustrate the growth of Islamic architecture in Anatolia. Within this hallowed perimeter, two different prayer rooms serve to Shafi’i and Hanafi adherents, demonstrating the mosque’s inclusiveness. The Zinciriye and Mesudiye Madrasas, which surround the mosque, reinforce its status as a center of theological learning.

One of the courtyard’s most notable features is an old sundial that has been in operation for more than 800 years. Worshipers and academics could tell the time by analyzing the shadow patterns cast on the ground, demonstrating Islamic civilization’s scientific advances.

Relief sculptures portraying a lion and a bull locked in struggle adorn the mosque’s eastern entrance, representing strength and perseverance. These beautiful sculptures, together with countless inscriptions from Ottoman and Seljuk emperors, serve as historical markers that document the mosque’s long-lasting history.

Originally built on the site of the Martoma Church in 639 CE during the reign of Caliph Umar, the mosque grew into its current shape in 1091 CE under the patronage of Sultan Malik-Shah I of the Great Seljuk Empire. The mosque has been patronized by famous monarchs such Melikshah, Inal, Nisanoğulları, and Gıyâseddin Keyhüsrev, as evidenced by the inscriptions found therein.

The mosque contains a variety of inscriptions, relief carvings, and artistic elements from various times. This complex tapestry of artistic forms reflects the mosque’s dynamic past and ability to absorb and reinterpret various cultural influences. The harmonious integration of these artistic elements into the mosque’s courtyard and interiors displays Anatolian craftsmen’s architectural skill over generations.

The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır represents Islamic tradition, architectural innovation, and cultural synthesis. As one of Turkey’s most important mosques and a beloved landmark in the Islamic world, it continues to inspire awe with its historical significance, structural durability, and artistic magnificence. Its huge prayer rooms, complex inscriptions, and illustrious history make it a living witness to the convergence of civilizations that have influenced Anatolia over the centuries.

History Of Great Mosque of Diyarbakir

The Great Mosque of Diyarbakir, located in southeastern Turkey, is Anatolia’s oldest mosque and, perhaps, Turkey’s oldest mosque overall. This old structure has a complex history that reflects not only its architectural majesty but also its rich cultural and religious significance. The mosque dates back to the 7th century, following the Muslim conquest of Diyarbakir in 639 CE, but its evolution has spanned centuries, integrating numerous influences and architectural styles that continue to captivate experts and visitors alike. Modern archaeological studies have discovered solid evidence that the existing mosque occupies the site of the city’s former Roman forum, providing intriguing insights into Diyarbakir’s ancient past. According to traditional accounts, the mosque sits on a church dedicated to Saint Thomas that was built by the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius in the 620s.

The Complex Legacy of the Mosque’s Origins

The early history of Diyarbakir’s Great Mosque is a combination of historical record and mythology, with each account adding to a fractured knowledge of its origins. One such narrative is based on a German translation of a medieval Muslim work credited to Pseudo-Waqidi, a later author who may not be the actual al-Waqidi. This document indicates that after the Muslim conquest, the city’s main church was divided between Muslims and Christians, a process common in early Islamic conquests. Such myths are frequently recounted in local histories, and they have become ingrained in popular perceptions of the mosque’s inception.

However, the historical accuracy of this tale has been questioned. Scholars such as Fatma Meral Halifeoğlu, Martine Assénat, and Jean-Charles Ducène have argued that the narrative may be apocryphal due to difficulties surrounding the source and contradictions between the German and Arabic translations. Other historical sources provide contradictory evidence, further complicating the narrative. Notably, the 12th-13th century Muslim historian Yaqut offers a different perspective, claiming that the early Muslim rulers allowed Christians to keep all of their churches while forbidding the construction of new ones. Other reports, such as those in the Zuqnin Chronicle and Theodotus, show that the church remained intact and used by Christians long after the conquest. These conflicts indicate that the original mosque may have been located next to the church rather than within it, with both constructions coexisting until the 11th century.

The Seljuk Reconstruction: A Symbol of Prestige and Power

The current structure of Diyarbakir’s Great Mosque originates mostly from the late 11th and 12th centuries, after the Seljuks conquered the city in 1085. Sultan Malik Shah, who commissioned substantial restorations, finished the mosque’s most significant architectural development between 1091 and 1092. This is the period when the mosque began to take on its modern form, largely influenced by the Great Mosque of Damascus, which was also patronized by Malik Shah. The Diyarbakir mosque’s layout, with its open courtyard and colossal prayer hall, evokes the grandeur of Syria’s Umayyad mosque, implying a purposeful effort to transmit Damascus’ cultural and architectural reputation to the newly acquired Seljuk provinces in Anatolia.

Following the 1115 fire, which caused significant damage to the mosque, more modifications were carried out in 1155-1156, as evidenced by an inscription on the prayer hall’s façade. The mosque’s minaret also has an inscription from 1141, indicating that more construction was done on the western and eastern wings during this time period. These wings, which flank the main courtyard, are important parts of the mosque complex and were built with the support of the Inalid and Nisanid dynasties, both of whom were local rulers under Seljuk authority. Their contributions to the mosque include two unique portions, the East and West Maqsuras, which serve as symbols of these dynasties’ political and cultural identities.

The Artistry of Spolia: A Blend of Byzantine and Islamic Influence

One of the most notable elements of Diyarbakir’s Great Mosque is the use of spolia, or recycled building materials from earlier Byzantine monuments. The western and eastern courtyard façades have a diverse collection of columns, Corinthian capitals, friezes with vine themes, and fragments of Greek inscriptions. These carefully incorporated components into the mosque’s design not only testify to the mosque’s complex history, but also indicate an aesthetic continuity between the region’s Byzantine past and its Islamic future. Hibatallah of Gurgan, the mosque’s only recorded architect, designed this scheme and oversaw the completion of the prayer hall and courtyard façades in the mid-12th century.

The Artuqid Period and Further Additions

During the Artuqid dynasty, the mosque complex grew to include two madrasas: the Zinciriye Medrese and the Mesudiye Medrese. The Zinciriye Medrese, built in 1198, is distinct from the mosque, whilst the Mesudiye Medrese, built between 1193 and 1223, occupies a portion of the northern courtyard. The courtyard façade of the Mesudiye Medrese is renowned for its use of spolia, featuring large ancient columns, which further connects the complex to its Byzantine background.

Ottoman Influence and Modern Renovations

The Ottoman invasion of Diyarbakir in 1515 led to the construction of a smaller prayer hall, the Şafi kısmı, on the northern side of the courtyard. This expansion, erected between 1528 and 1529, was meant to assist the Shafi’i legal school, a branch of Islamic law. The Ottomans also significantly altered the mosque’s interior, renovating the central nave, interior chambers, and pitched roof. A series of modifications in the 18th century, including the building of a new mihrab, improved the mosque’s appearance. The minaret, which had deteriorated over time, was repaired in 1839, and the shadirvan, a fountain in the center of the courtyard, was installed in 1849, improving the mosque’s aesthetics and functioning.

Architecture of the Great Mosque: An Exploration of its Courtyard and Prayer Hall

The Great Mosque, an architectural marvel of historical and cultural value, is a tribute to centuries of workmanship and religious dedication. Its design, a combination of ornate adornment and useful space, reflects the mosque’s long history, which includes multiple reconstructions and extensions. The mosque’s architecture reflects the creativity of its architects through intricate stonework, careful spatial organization, and symbolic design aspects. The mosque’s most notable features are the gorgeous courtyard and the enormous prayer hall, each with its own distinct qualities and symbolic significance.

Courtyard

The courtyard of the Great Mosque is a tranquil and vast environment that surrounds the mosque in a quiet atmosphere of introspection and devotion. The courtyard, which is surrounded by porticoes on both its eastern and western sides, remains one of the mosque’s most prominent exterior features. The floor, paved with basalt slabs, provides a dark contrast to the surrounding building, giving the space a sophisticated feel. The mosque is located at the southern extremity of the courtyard, highlighting its importance to the sacred place. The main entrance, a colossal portal, is placed on the eastern side of the courtyard, welcoming worshippers and guests into this spiritual retreat.

The mosque’s eastern and western porticoes stand out for their grandeur. These porticoes are two stories tall and feature excellent stone carvings. The exquisite and captivating masonry serves as a visual feast, with each carving telling a story of artistry and love. These porticoes contribute significantly to the courtyard’s architectural harmony, offering shelter while also improving the space’s visual appeal.

In contrast to the length and sophistication of the eastern and western porticoes, the mosque’s northern façade is comparatively modest in height, having only one level. In stark contrast, the mosque’s southern façade is separated into three distinct portions, each with its own distinctive architectural features. The lateral arms of the southern façade, despite being just one story tall, give a sense of equilibrium, while the center part soars over them, reaching more than twice the height of the arms. This architectural feature gives the mosque a sense of grandeur, accentuating its massive presence in the city skyline.

The Great Mosque’s courtyard is notable for the abundance of Kufic inscriptions that adorn its exteriors. These inscriptions serve as historical markers, documenting the mosque’s long history of restoration and growth. The beautiful carvings and inscriptions on the columns are more than just ornamental; they have deep cultural and historical importance, documenting the mosque’s progress over time. The elaborate decorating on the columns is one of the mosque’s courtyard’s distinguishing features, and the western arcade, in particular, demonstrates the usage of the broken arch—an architectural innovation that was one of the earliest of its kind.

The courtyard columns are an example of the region’s complex geological history. The columns, made of four separate rock types—pre-Tertiary met ophiolite, Eocene limestones, Miocene limestones, and Poli-Quaternary basalts—display an astonishing variety of textures and colors. Despite the mosque’s repeated renovations and the wear and tear that comes with centuries of use, many of the ancient columns have been saved and repurposed, providing a look into its history. The columns’ different lengths and the materials used in their construction indicate that they were not just structural but also decorative, adding to the mosque’s architectural richness.

The East Maqsura is a significant structure in the courtyard, located on the eastern side of the space. This two-story structure stands out for its wooden beams and tiled roof, which provide a new texture to the courtyard’s generally stone-heavy architecture. The Mesudiye Madrasa, located on the northern side of the courtyard, is a revered educational institution that adds to the mosque complex’s spiritual and intellectual significance.

Prayer Hall

The mosque’s interior is just as stunning as its appearance, with the prayer hall serving as a massive area for communal worship and reflection. The prayer hall’s layout is both utilitarian and awe-inspiring, with three aisles running parallel to the qibla wall, which guides worshippers to Mecca. This style features a huge central nave that runs perpendicular to the qibla wall and separates the hall into distinct sections. This central nave serves as a symbolic axis, directing the attention to the core of the mosque and, more crucially, the mihrab—the niche that symbolizes the direction of prayer.

The mihrab is positioned at the southern end of the nave, in the center of the qibla wall. The mihrab functions as both a functional and spiritual focal point, guiding worshippers through their prayers and representing divine presence. Above the mihrab, the ceiling of the central nave is painted with complex decorative designs, adding to the space’s hallowed feel. These painted designs combine geometric patterns with stylized floral components, providing both beauty and spiritual depth.

Lead plating covers the ceiling of the prayer hall, a sturdy and time-tested material that not only protects the structure but also gives weight and gravitas to the overall architecture of the building. The central nave’s ceiling rises above the wings that flank it, underlining its significance as the prayer hall’s centerpiece. This architectural choice leads the eye upward, inspiring awe and reverence.

The exterior of the prayer hall is as spectacular, with a courtyard façade and two wings on either side. Each wing has two doors and five windows that allow light to enter the hall, while the central nave’s façade rises higher in the middle, emphasizing the nave’s significance within the prayer hall. Intricate garland and meander motifs adorn the courtyard façade, as does an inscription in floral Kufic calligraphy. These decorative features are more than just ornaments; they carry meaning and represent the mosque’s builders’ creative and spiritual objectives.

The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır: A Historic and Architectural Marvel

The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır, located in the city’s ancient core, exemplifies Islamic architecture and religious significance. It is not only the largest mosque in the region, but also one of the most historically significant, with tourists from all over the world. It is revered for its large capacity to seat up to 5,000 worshippers and acts as a spiritual hub for numerous Islamic traditions, including four distinct Sunni schools of thought. Many regard it as one of the holiest locations in the Islamic world, with others placing it as the fifth holiest, solidifying its place in the larger religious landscape.

A Monument to Time: The Oldest Mosque in Anatolia

The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır is Anatolia’s oldest mosque, with a rich cultural and religious history. Its origins date back to the Umayyad period, making it a noteworthy architectural marvel as well as a priceless artifact of Turkey’s early Islamic era. The Mesudiye Medrese, founded in the 1190s and believed to be the oldest surviving institution of its kind to have taught all four legal schools of Sunni Islam, adds to the mosque’s historical backdrop. This medrese, which is closely associated with the mosque, offers a look into the intellectual enthusiasm of the time, evoking analogies to Baghdad’s Mustansiriya, one of the oldest universities in the Islamic world.

A Connection to Damascus: Inspiration and Innovation

The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır shares similarities with other monumental mosques, including the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, demonstrating inspiration and ingenuity. The Umayyad Mosque in Damascus, one of the earliest and most influential examples of Islamic architecture, is said to have inspired many mosques around the Islamic world, notably the Great Mosque of Diyarbakır. The similarities between the Damascus and Diyarbakır mosques are evident, yet the minute variances distinguish the Great Mosque of Diyarbakır as a separate architectural entity.

Unlike the Umayyad Mosque, the Great Mosque of Diyarbakır lacks a central dome that dominates the prayer chamber. The absence of a central dome is particularly remarkable and indicates a significant break in architectural traditions, especially given that Turkey popularized the use of huge central domes in mosque construction throughout the Ottoman period. This move, which eventually evolved into a distinct Turkish style, differs from more conventional Arabic mosque designs, which prominently emphasized domes in the middle. The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır has a simpler, more austere aesthetic, which some believe reflects the humble devotion that defines Islamic prayer.

The Distinct Features of Diyarbakır’s Mosque: A Study in Modesty and Piety

The construction characteristics of the Great Mosque of Diyarbakır and the Great Mosque of Damascus differ significantly, particularly the pillars and columns used. The Great Mosque of Diyarbakır’s broad, strong pillars create a sense of grounded strength, unlike the delicate, round columns commonly found in Syrian mosques. These pillars, combined with the lack of ornate ornamental mosaics and embellishments, contribute to the mosque’s reputation for humility. Many people believe that this simplicity is more in line with the ideas of piety, as it provides a setting that is not overrun with lavish frills and instead accentuates the act of devotion.

The design of the Great Mosque of Diyarbakır follows a practical approach to mosque architecture. The inner area is purposefully enclosed, with the prayer hall invisible from the outside, providing an atmosphere of reverence and privacy for those who enter. The mosque’s minaret, modeled after Christian bell towers, reflects Diyarbakır’s cross-cultural architectural growth. The courtyard, prayer hall, and eastern entrance proportions, as well as the layout of the prayer hall itself, all echo features found in Damascus’ Umayyad Mosque, cementing the link between the two and reinforcing the mosque’s role as a cultural and spiritual nexus for the city.

A Modest Yet Profound Presence in the Islamic World

In architectural circles, the Great Mosque of Diyarbakır is frequently regarded a modest edifice when contrasted to the grandiose designs of other notable mosques. However, this very modesty is what many people find so appealing about the mosque—it has an underlying beauty that is both humble and profound. Its simplicity encourages introspection, making it an ideal setting for the faithful to concentrate their hearts and thoughts on devotion. This architectural style can also be found in mosques in other important cities, such as Aleppo and Hama in Syria, reflecting regional trends in piety-driven design.