Diyarbakır’s fortifications, located in southeastern Turkey, reflect the region’s turbulent past. These massive structures encircle Sur’s historic district and comprise of an inner citadel and an outer defensive ring, constituting an almost continuous barrier against both time and invasion. The Diyarbakır walls, second only to China’s Great Wall in size and scale, are a testament to centuries of architectural growth, military strategy, and cultural synthesis.

The fortified city has four main gates: Dağ (Mountain), Urfa, Mardin, and Yeni (New). These entryways, strategically located for defensive and economic goals, have facilitated trade, military mobilization, and diplomatic contacts throughout history. Each gate, embellished with inscriptions, reliefs, and architectural decorations, whispers stories of previous civilizations that passed over its hefty thresholds.

Diyarbakır’s fortifications originated in Amida, an ancient city. Though the walls took on their final appearance by Emperor Constantius II in the mid-fourth century AD, its foundations are thought to trace back even longer. According to Armenian historian Movses Khorenatsi, the initial building took place during King Tigranes the Great’s reign in the 6th century BC, under the Orontid dynasty. Later powers, such as the Romans, Sassanids, Byzantines, and various Islamic and Ottoman monarchs, extended, fortified, and changed these structures, leaving an indelible mark on their enduring silhouette.

Diyarbakır’s fortifications span 5.8 kilometers and have 63 inscriptions chronicling construction phases, restorations, and controlling administrations. Their enormous width and height, together with their nearly uninterrupted continuity, make them one of the world’s most important defensive fortifications. Unlike the shattered Theodosian Walls of Constantinople, the Diyarbakır walls remain intact and serve as a strong barrier against time and conquest.

UNESCO included the Diyarbakır Fortress to its tentative list in 2000 and finally inscribed it as a World Heritage Site in 2015, with the lush Hevsel Gardens. This distinction recognizes not just the walls’ military importance, but also their role in preserving urban life. The Hevsel Gardens, located between the city and the Tigris River, served as Diyarbakır’s main agricultural hub, providing a steady supply of food and water. The symbiotic interaction between the walls and the gardens demonstrates the city’s strategic resilience and self-sufficiency over the years.

The origins of Diyarbakır’s walls are still unknown, despite vast historical sources. Some evidence suggests that the Inner Castle, known as Içkale, was the city’s first settlement. While written chronicles suggest that the Hurrians inhabited the region as early as 2000 BC, little is known about their fortifications other than subsequent restorations made in the 9th century BC, when the city functioned as the Bit-Zamani tribe’s capital. Roman interventions in the structure are attested from 330-338 AD and 349 AD, although the layers of reconstruction obscure conclusive answers about their origins.

Diyarbakır’s fortified city, located on the escarpment of the Upper Tigris River Basin, has been a vital bastion for centuries. From the Hellenistic era to Roman, Sassanid, Byzantine, Islamic, and Ottoman dominions, its walls have watched the rise and fall of empires, the march of armies, and the mingling of various cultures. The fortifications of Diyarbakır represent persistence, adaptation, and continuity, in addition to their military purpose.

The Diyarbakır Fortress is inextricably tied to its surroundings, rather than standing alone. The Anzele water source, the Ten-Eyed Bridge, and the Hevsel Gardens all add to the city’s historical and ecological fabric. Diyarbakır’s fortified yet livable city has survived centuries of siege, conflict, and shifting political landscapes thanks to creative urban planning.

The Enduring Legacy of Diyarbakir’s Walls: A Testament to Millennia of History

The walls of Diyarbakir, a magnificent accomplishment of ancient and medieval engineering, bear silent witness to centuries of conquests, cultural upheavals, and architectural improvements. The Romans first built these formidable defenses in 297 AD, and they have undergone numerous modifications, extensions, and restorations at the hands of successive civilizations that dominated the region. Built from the region’s abundant volcanic basalt, the walls have a characteristic black tone that gives them an intimidating presence against the backdrop of the city.

Roman Foundations and the Expansion of the Walls

The Romans, who had colonized Diyarbakir around 230 AD, began building of the fortifications over seven decades later. However, the definitive alteration happened in 349 AD, when Emperor Constantius II greatly extended or completely rebuilt the walls to strengthen the city’s defenses. These early walls laid the groundwork for centuries of change, with each epoch leaving its own architectural impression while making use of the region’s resilient volcanic rock.

Beyond its Roman roots, the site has remnants of several civilizations, including the Hurrians, Seljuks, Artuqids, Aq Qoyunlu, and Ottomans. This vast tapestry of influences contributes to Diyarbakir’s status as a multicultural and multilingual city where many traditions have coexisted for millennia.

Byzantine and Islamic Restorations

The walls underwent significant enlargement and fortification throughout the Byzantine period, particularly under Emperor Justinian I in the sixth century. Following the Muslim conquest in the seventh century, successive Islamic rulers assumed responsibility for their upkeep, ensuring that the defenses remained formidable against possible attackers. The majority of today’s structures are the result of medieval Muslim renovations, which combine Roman technical principles with Islamic artistic flourishes.

Abbasid Destruction and Reconstruction

In 899, the city’s rebellious governor enraged the Abbasid caliph al-Mu’tamid, resulting in the partial destruction of Diyarbakir’s defenses, including the Harput and Mardin gates, which provided essential access to the north and south. A decade later, under Caliph al-Muqtadir, these gates were rebuilt, restoring the city’s walls to their original strength. During this time, beautiful carvings of animals and Arabic inscriptions began to appear on the walls, indicating the artistic contributions of Abbasid artists.

Medieval Fortifications and the Influence of Successive Dynasties

The Marwanid dynasty concentrated on fortifying the southeastern sector of the walls, which provided more protection along this vulnerable section. The Great Seljuks, who temporarily ruled Diyarbakir after 1088, carried out substantial restorations, with Sultan Malik-Shah I leading the total rebuilding of the western walls and towers. In the 12th century, the Inalids made considerable changes to the eastern walls that connect the New Gate (Yeni Kapı) to the Citadel.

Prior to this era, most reconstructions followed Roman techniques, which involved huge, regularly laid stone blocks. However, when Ayyubid king Saladin evicted the Inalids and the Artuqids took authority in the late 12th century, a shift in workmanship occurred. The Artuqid monarchs, who ruled the city until the 15th century, developed a more sophisticated masonry style that featured smaller cut stones and elaborate decoration. Notably, they reconstructed the citadel in 1206-1207, shortly after which they built two significant towers along the southern wall: Yedi Kardeş Tower and Evli Beden (or Ulu Beden) Tower. These monuments are renowned for their intricate calligraphic inscriptions and magnificent stone sculptures of animals and mythological characters.

Ottoman Modifications and Modern Changes

Diyarbakir became involved in the Ottoman-Safavid conflict during the turbulent 16th century. Following the Ottoman takeover of the city in 1515, cannon fire severely damaged substantial sections of the walls. The Ottomans performed pragmatic renovations, prioritizing structure stability over aesthetic decoration. One major change in the early Ottoman period was the Citadel’s extension by extending its limit outward, which strengthened the city’s core.

In the twentieth century, the contemporary urban landscape began to encroach on the ancient defenses. Parts of the walls were deliberately dismantled in 1930 to make way for urban development, with openings built west of the Harput Gate and east of the Mardin Gate to improve traffic flow. Despite these fractures, the walls are astonishingly well kept, demonstrating their ongoing durability.

Recent Damage and Preservation Challenges

The walls of Diyarbakir have endured the test of time, but they are not immune to the impacts of modern conflict. In 2015, conflicts between the Turkish Army and Kurdish guerillas caused considerable damage to the old Sur neighborhood, which houses many of the city’s ancient antiquities. In the aftermath, the Turkish government burned almost one-third of the old town, irreversibly altering the historical landscape.

Despite these problems, attempts to protect and restore Diyarbakir’s walls continue, motivated by a desire to preserve this remarkable architectural and cultural heritage. As a contender for UNESCO World Heritage designation, Diyarbakir’s fortifications continue to inspire respect, symbolizing the convergence of civilizations that have left their mark on this old city.

Exploring the Ancient Diyarbakir City Walls: A Timeless Fortress

The Diyarbakir city walls are a tremendous tribute to architecture’s enduring force, a symbol of protection and history imprinted on the fabric of time. These walls, 5.8 kilometers (3.6 miles) long, enclose the old city, defining the boundaries of a location rich in centuries of history and culture. The Diyarbakir walls are over 33 feet high and range in thickness from 10 to 16 feet, making it one of the most astounding marvels of ancient engineering. They are the world’s longest and widest defense walls, ranking second only to China’s Great Wall in terms of length and completion.

A Monumental Structure of Ancient Engineering

The wide expanse of the Diyarbakir walls provides a protective ring around the medieval city, with a diameter exceeding three miles. This massive fortress was intended not only for military defense, but also to protect the rich cultural legacy contained within. The walls include four main gates, each an architectural marvel in its own right, as well as 82 tall towers that give an extra layer of security. These towers, some of which are many stories tall, provide dominating views of the surrounding terrain, ensuring that no approach to the city goes undetected.

The walls themselves are a combination of elegance and functionality. With over 63 inscriptions on their surface, they convey stories from many times of Diyarbakir’s vast and diverse history. These inscriptions provide an insight into the city’s history, ranging from ancient conquests to cultural milestones, and serve as a silent narrative that has stood the test of time.

The Citadel and Its Role in Diyarbakir’s History

The citadel stands magnificently in the northeast corner of the city, with walls that reach 598 meters. This fortress is known as Diyarbakir’s cradle, as it housed the city’s early settlements. The walls enclosing the citadel serve as a physical link to Diyarbakir’s early days, placing the city’s development within the setting of ancient defenses. The citadel serves as a sentinel, guarding the modern city and providing insight into the roots of its defensive legacy.

The walls spread outward to encompass Diyarbakir’s more urbanized historic core. The city within these walls reflects the region’s millennia-long combination of cultures and traditions. Much of the wall’s structure is defined by traditional masonry and construction techniques, demonstrating the craftsmanship of ancient builders who depended on locally found resources to produce such a long-lasting defensive system. The towers, which serve as sentries along the wall, have up to four levels with foundations measuring 4.4 meters at ground level. As the floors climb, the construction gets increasingly delicate, tapering off at each level.

Materials of Durability: Black Basalt and Adobe

One of the most striking features of the Diyarbakir walls is their construction, notably the use of black basalt stone. This volcanic rock from the surrounding area is noted for its toughness, which contributes to the walls’ endurance. These defenses have weathered the test of time, retaining their integrity for more than two millennia. In addition to basalt, adobe, a traditional building material comprised of clay and straw, was used in the wall’s construction, resulting in a fusion of materials that ensured both strength and stability. The longevity of these materials is one of the primary reasons the Diyarbakir walls have endured centuries of battle, weather, and repair.

The walls have undergone several renovations, repairs, and reconstructions over the years. These changes reflect the city’s evolving needs, but the overall character of the fortifications has stayed essentially unaltered. The fortifications represent a cultural evolution, having been changed and strengthened to satisfy the needs of the numerous civilizations that have called Diyarbakir home.

The Symbolism of the Walls

Beyond their military use, the Diyarbakir city walls have a deeper, symbolic value. The inscriptions found on the city’s inner walls, particularly near the fort, form a rich tapestry of the city’s history. They discuss conquests, cultural triumphs, and the city’s status as a center of civilization. The fortifications are not just barriers against invaders, but also symbols of Diyarbakir’s enduring character as a city that has stood the test of time and the shifting sands of history.

The Architectural Legacy: Circular and Tetragonal Forms

Architecturally, the Diyarbakir walls exhibit an intriguing blend of design concepts, with circular and tetragonal forms dominating the fortification plans. The walls were divided into five basic sections: four of them were centered on the main gates, while the fifth was dedicated to the Citadel. The towers around the gates constituted a strategic defense network, protecting each approach to the city. 65 of the original 82 towers survive on the citadel’s outside walls, while 18 towers within it stand proudly, each affording a look into their creators’ military and architectural skill.

Cultural changes and time have surely influenced the evolution of the walls. The defenses have been rebuilt, maintained, and changed to meet the demands of the various communities that have occupied Diyarbakir over the years. Despite these revisions, the basic typology of the walls has remained consistent, retaining the core form of the ancient defenses.

The Historic Bastions of Diyarbakır’s City Walls

Diyarbakır’s massive city walls define the city, which is known for its rich cultural legacy. These old fortifications, once a symbol of defense, have now become important historical landmarks. Several of the 82 bastions that punctuate these walls are notable for their historical significance, architectural originality, and continuing functions in the modern cityscape. This article dives into some of the most noteworthy bastions, discussing their history, architecture, and modern roles.

Dağ Kapı Bastion: A Blend of History and Modernity

Dağ Kapı, also known as Harput Kapı, is one of the most important bastions of the Diyarbakır city walls. It was formerly a major gateway into the city, but it has developed over the ages and today serves as both the Tourism Office and the State Fine Arts Gallery for the Ministry of Tourism. The ornate ornamentation and animal patterns on this bastion’s eastern and western walls add to its architectural brilliance. These artistic flourishes highlight the region’s cultural diversity and artistic legacy.

Although historically significant, Dağ Kapı’s physical condition has deteriorated over time. Despite being structurally intact following a 1978 restoration, the places where the bastion meets the stone-paved courtyard show alarming symptoms of degradation. Humidity rising from the earth has produced salinization, discolouration, and erosion, especially in the lower parts, which are around 60-70 cm above ground. The eastern part of this bastion, which is still in poor condition, has not received the same repairs as the western section. These structural difficulties highlight the challenges of preserving such an ancient landmark in a continuously changing urban setting.

Tek Beden Tower: Resilient Amidst Change

Tek Beden Tower, situated between Dağ Kapı and Tek Kapı towers, serves as a silent reminder of the city’s transitions. This tower, which was previously part of the city wall but was removed for construction, is a rare example of a well-preserved bastion. The building’s structural strength remains noteworthy, and it now serves as a sales area, highlighting the mix of historic and modern uses in Diyarbakır’s urban landscape. This tower serves as a reminder of how old constructions evolve to meet the needs of the modern world while retaining their historical integrity.

Tek Kapı Tower: A Late Addition to the Fortifications

Tek Kapı Tower was a later addition to the city walls, unlike previous bastions. Its objective was to give another access into the city, which was becoming more densely populated and complex. Despite its recent construction, the tower remains an important part of the city’s defense system. Over time, it has become an important part of the fortifications, integrating smoothly with the earlier structures and signifying Diyarbakır’s continued development as a strategic and cultural hub.

Evli Beden Tower: A Testament to Artuqid Architecture

Evli Beden Tower, also known as Benusen Tower, is one of the most majestic towers on Diyarbakır’s city walls. Architect Cafer Oğlu İbrahim built this tower in 1208 during the reign of Artuqid ruler Melik Salih. It is a wonder of Artuqid architecture. Its design has rich inscriptions and exquisite ornamentation, providing a look into the splendor of the Artuqid dynasty. A stepped spur supports the tower’s foundation and bears inscriptions, adding to its historical significance. This bulwark exemplifies the exquisite craftsmanship of its era, with its unique decorative embellishments serving as a permanent legacy of the Artuqid dynasty.

Yedi Kardeş Tower: A Symbol of Seljuk Power

In the same year as the Evli Beden Tower, Architect İbrahimoğlu Yahya built the Yedi Kardeş Tower in the name of Artuqid ruler Melik Salih. This stronghold, made entirely of basalt cut stone, is out for its cylindrical design and is ornamented with iconic Seljuk Empire insignia. This edifice displays carvings of the double-headed eagle, a symbol of Seljuk sovereignty, as well as reliefs of lions and inscriptions. However, the tower’s structure has changed over the years, with holes emerging in the lower levels as a result of various interventions. Despite these changes, the Yedi Kardeş Tower remains a strong emblem of Seljuk influence and architectural achievement in the region.

Nur Bastion: Seljuk Legacy in Stone

Nur Bastion, built in 1089 by Seljuk king Melik Şah, is near to Yedi Kardeş Tower. This stronghold is a showcase of Seljuk craftsmanship, with motifs like rushing horses, lions, and human and animal images that are typical of Seljuk art. The exquisite carvings and strategic location of the stronghold demonstrate the Seljuks’ military and cultural significance in the region. Nur Bastion has changed over time, yet its original Seljuk characteristics still contribute to Diyarbakır’s architectural identity.

Keçi Burcu: The Largest and Oldest of the Bastions

Keçi Burcu, the largest and oldest bastion along Diyarbakır city walls, is notable for both its size and architectural elements. With eleven arches and two levels, this bastion is a stunning specimen of medieval engineering. The interior of the bastion is particularly remarkable, with three naves covered in brick vaults and supported by arches that rest on columns. During the Byzantine period, this space was used as the Şemsi Temple. It has been repaired multiple times, most notably by the Mervanoğulları in 1223. Keçi Burcu’s evolution from a religious place to a military installation symbolizes Diyarbakır’s changing cultural and political history.

The Seljuk Bastion: A Monument to Melikşah’s Vision

The Seljuk Bastion, ordered by the Great Seljuk Sultan Melikşah, is a notable part of the Diyarbakır city walls. Built in 1088 by Selame’s son Urfalı Muhammed, this fortress exemplifies the architectural prowess of the Seljuk Empire. The erection of Diyarbakır’s walls marks a pivotal era in the city’s history, representing the Seljuks’ strategic and cultural influence. The Seljuk Bastion, like many of its counterparts, exemplifies the city’s architectural tradition by blending functionality with creativity.

The Four Gates of the City Walls

The historic city walls, steeped in history, serve as a tribute to the grandeur and fortifications of times past. The gates include Dağ Kapı, Urfa Kapı, Yeni Kapı, and Mardin Kapı, each with a particular architectural style and historical significance. These gates were not only important entry points, but also emblems of the changing empires that had dominated the region. Their creation, restoration, and functionality across time show the interaction of military, political, and cultural factors that shape the city.

Dağ Kapı: The Northern Fortress

Dağ Kapı, located in the north of the city, serves as a strong sentinel guarding the entrance between two magnificent cylindrical towers. Its positioning between these towers reveals a very strategic design that provides both security and visibility to anyone approaching or exiting the city. The northern gate, often regarded as one of the city’s greatest fortifications, exemplifies the walls’ defensive nature. The towering towers not only enhance the gate’s military purpose, but also serve as an imposing visual cue for people approaching the city from the mountains. Dağ Kapı’s historical and architectural significance highlights the city’s architects’ defensive awareness in protecting its northern borders from prospective invaders.

Urfa Kapı: The Western Gateway of History

Urfa Kapı, located on the city’s western edge, has a rich architectural and symbolic history. This gate’s inscription tells that it was renovated by Sultan Mehmet, a monarch of the Artuqid dynasty. This inscription is more than just a historical marker; it also attests to the ongoing restoration and care taken to preserve these gates. Sultan Mehmet’s involvement in the gate’s reconstruction underlines Urfa Kapı’s prominence as both a city entry and a symbol of imperial sovereignty. During the Artuqid time, the gate was given iron wings embellished with human and animal sculptures, which increased its artistic appeal and reinforced its regal status. Over time, the gate remained a point of entry for key historical events. During the Ottoman Empire, it was known as the imperial gate, and it was ceremoniously opened during the sultan’s campaigns. The ritualistic opening and closing of Urfa Kapı during military campaigns emphasizes its symbolic significance in Ottoman imperial authority.

Mardin Kapı: The Southern Portal

Mardin Kapı, located on the southern edge of the city, is an important section of the defensive wall. This gate, while less thoroughly detailed in ancient documents, is nonetheless an important feature of the city’s protective system. Mardin Kapı built the southern wall to protect the city’s people against desert-based attacks. The gate’s strategic location on the southernmost edge demonstrates the wisdom of those who constructed the city’s defenses, which ensured that all vulnerable access points were well-protected. Mardin Kapı displays the military and topographical factors that influenced the city’s growth and defense.

Yeni Kapı: The Water Gate of the East

The Water Gate, or Yeni Kapı, is located on the eastern edge of the city. Yeni Kapı’s simple design, including a low arch and a single entry, stands apart from other gates that are more reinforced and extravagant. Its simplicity, however, hides its vital purpose. This gate, which connected the city to the Tigris River, played an important role in trade and transit, connecting the city to the region’s key waterway. The gate’s design, with its modest arch, meant that it could accommodate both human traffic and the transit of goods and materials across the river. The Tigris River plays a crucial role in the economic and cultural life of Yeni Kapı, because to its strategic location. The gate was a significant conduit for the flow of resources, enhancing the city’s relations with nearby regions and providing access to the river’s wealth.