Aspendos, also known as Aspendus (Ancient Greek: ΕΣΤϜΕΔΥΣ; Attic: Ἄσπενδoς), was a magnificent ancient city located in what is now Antalya region, Turkey. This ancient Greco-Roman metropolis, located around 40 kilometers east of Antalya, thrived on the banks of the Eurymedon River, some 16 kilometers inland from the Mediterranean sea. Its strategic location made it a significant actor in the Mediterranean world’s historical and cultural tapestry, with an impact that lasted from the 5th century BC until the Byzantine and Seljuk periods. Aspendos’ legacy continues to this day, attracting the imaginations of approximately 400,000 people each year.

The ancient city of Aspendos is located in Pamphylia, a historic region known for its unique cultural blend of Greek, Roman, and indigenous traditions. It was located on a plateau about 60 meters above sea level, on a flat-topped hill that overlooked the Eurymedon River. During its peak, the river was navigable, aiding trade and communication and considerably contributing to the city’s development. Aspendos’ location, with its rich surrounds and river access, let it to develop as a commercial, industrial, and cultural center in antiquity.

Archaeological investigations have revealed that Aspendos was well-established as early as the fifth century BC. Historical sources show that the city participated in the Persian conquest of Pamphylia, and its sustained status was confirmed under Alexander the Great’s reign in the fourth century BC. Recent discoveries have shown the richness of Aspendos’ material culture, revealing even earlier settlement activity dating back to the Early Iron Age. While the city’s monumental constructions are primarily from the Hellenistic and Roman periods, evidence of occupation during the Byzantine and Seljuk periods demonstrates that Aspendos has a long and continuous history of settlement.

The ancient theatre of Aspendos is maybe the most recognizable and well-preserved monument on the site. This architectural marvel, originating from the second century AD, is still one of the most impressive surviving Roman theaters in the world. British archaeologist David George Hogarth characterized the theatre’s magnificence in 1909, noting its unmatched beauty and preservation. Hogarth’s observations are still relevant today: Aspendos’ theatre is a towering testament to Roman engineering and architectural sophistication.

Zenon, an architect known for his ability to create constructions that both pleased the senses and fulfilled utilitarian objectives, designed the theatre during Emperor Marcus Aurelius’ reign, circa 160-180 AD. The theatre was a gift to the city from two wealthy brothers, A. Curtius Crispinus Arruntianus and A. Curtius Crispinus, whose philanthropy insured its continuing usage and maintenance.

At its center, the theatre is a magnificent example of Roman engineering, with a massive seating capacity ranging from 7,300 to 7,600 people, though this figure may rise to 8,500 during particularly busy performances. The diazoma, a horizontal tunnel that helps to channel the flow of spectators, divides the seating area, or cavea, into two portions. The lower half, which has 20 rows of seating, is accessible via vaulted entrances known as parodoi, whilst the top section, which has 21 rows, is accessible via external stairways.

The stage construction, or scaenae frons, is equally impressive. It had exquisite architectural embellishment, including a two-story façade with intricately carved entablatures, columns, and friezes. The lower frieze had garlands draped from bucrania (skull symbols), while the upper frieze had tendrils, demonstrating the period’s excellent craftsmanship. A large-scale relief depicting a scene of legendary or historical significance once adorned the center of the façade, above the central entrance, adding to the beauty of this already spectacular building.

The theatre’s acoustics were another miracle of architecture, allowing even the faintest whisper to be heard clearly throughout the auditorium. This grasp of acoustics was a defining feature of Roman theatres, and Aspendos is one of the outstanding instances of their knowledge and expertise.

Though the theatre captures the visitor’s eye, Aspendos’ aqueducts are another engineering marvel to behold. The aqueducts, built in the second century AD, were critical in delivering water to the city by transporting it from the mountains 15 kilometers to the north. The water, which ran through arcades and underground pipes, was not only necessary for the city’s people but also for the lush agricultural land around it, ensuring Aspendos’ success as an agricultural center on the Pamphylian plain.

The aqueducts of Aspendos are famous for their usage of inverted siphons. The 30-meter-high siphons transported water from Gökçeler and Pınarbaşı springs across a 1.7-kilometer valley to the city. The arches supported the siphons, with the highest reaching 15 meters at their lowest point in the valley. These inventive siphons are among the best-preserved examples of Roman water engineering, and their research continues to shed light on ancient techniques of water transfer.

The Aspendos aqueducts are frequently compared to other well-known Roman aqueducts, such as the Pont du Gard in France and the Aqueducts of Segovia in Spain. While those constructions are spectacular in their own right, Aspendos’ aqueducts stand out for their innovative use of siphons. These siphons, which were not used in the other famous aqueducts, provide an invaluable peek into the Romans’ technological genius, helping academics to better comprehend the procedures used to assure a consistent flow of water to ancient communities.

History of Aspendos

Aspendos, a flourishing ancient city located in Pamphylia on the southern coast of modern-day Turkey, had a rich and lively history. Its rise to prominence in the ancient world, its shifting political allegiances, and its lasting cultural imprint have long piqued the interest of historians and archaeologists. The city’s history spans from the 5th century BC to its eventual decline during the Byzantine period, and it is a remarkable story of prosperity, strife, and survival.

Coins of Aspendos

The coinage of Aspendos attest to the city’s enormous economic power and autonomy in antiquity. These coins, which were produced in large quantities, circulated throughout the Mediterranean, providing physical evidence of Aspendos’ importance in the ancient world. By the fifth century BC, Aspendos had established itself as the most prominent city in Pamphylia. The abundant variety of coins discovered throughout the ancient globe reflects the city’s power, prosperity, and extensive trading networks.

According to historian Thucydides, the Eurymedon River, which was navigable as far as Aspendos at the time, allowed the city to dominate important trade routes. Aspendos took advantage of its geographical location by participating in profitable trade in salt, oil, and wool—resources highly valued throughout the Mediterranean. The city’s coinage reflected its affluence, depicting powerful deities and symbols representing its maritime supremacy and economic reach. Despite its riches, Aspendos lacked substantial political authority in the ancient world. Its history during the colonization period was strongly related to broader movements in the Pamphylian region, and while it was not a governmental powerhouse, it was an important player in ancient Mediterranean trade and culture.

Political History

Aspendos’ political history is characterized by a succession of power transitions that reflect the volatile dynamics of the ancient Mediterranean. Following the colonial period, the city came under the influence of many neighboring nations, including the Lycians, before surrendering to Persian rule in 546 BC. Despite being under Persian dominion, Aspendos maintained a remarkable degree of freedom. This is most clearly demonstrated by the city’s continuing manufacturing of its own coinage, which indicates great autonomy even under Persian administration.

Aspendos faced a watershed event in its history in 465 BC, at the height of the struggle between Athens and Persia. Cimon, an Athenian general, commanded a naval fleet to engage the Persian navy at the mouth of the Eurymedon River, defeating them decisively. This victory permitted Aspendos to join the Delian League, an Athens-led political and military alliance. However, the city’s ties with Athens were not permanent. In 411 BC, the Persians recaptured Aspendos and used it as a strategic outpost.

Despite these alien assaults, the people of Aspendos remained remarkably resilient. Thrasybulus, the Athenian commander, sought to subdue Aspendos in 389 BC, as the Peloponnesian Wars were coming to a conclusion. In order to prevent a costly fight, he used force and money collected from citizens. However, Thrasybulus’ actions infuriated the Aspendians, culminating in his execution by citizens angry by his shameful handling of their crops.

Alexander the Great and the Macedonian Period

The meeting between Alexander the Great and Aspendos in 333 BC was another watershed milestone in the city’s history. After defeating the nearby city of Perge, Alexander marched to Aspendos. To avoid the wrath of the Macedonian monarch, the city’s people despatched envoys to ask Alexander not to station soldiers in their city. Alexander consented to their request on the condition that the city continue to pay tribute to him, as it had done under Persian rule. However, shortly after, the Aspendians abandoned their accord and prepared to defend their city.

When Alexander discovered the Aspendians’ duplicity, he marched back to the city. In response to the impending threat, the residents of Aspendos, who had fled to their Acropolis, dispatched envoys to seek peace. This time, however, the terms of peace were harsher. Aspendos had to accept a Macedonian garrison and pay a substantial annual tribute of 100 gold talents and 4,000 horses. This began a new era in Aspendos’ history, as it fell under Macedonian rule and continued to pay tribute to Alexander’s successors.

Roman Conquest and Decline

After subduing the territory, the Romans took control of the city in 190 BC. During this period, Aspendos’ political and cultural influence waned. The city’s once-thriving commerce networks were interrupted, and the great art treasures of Aspendos were taken by the corrupt Roman magistrate Verres, leaving a perceptible stain on the city’s image.

Nonetheless, the city remained significant in the region for many centuries. Philostratus, the ancient biographer, placed Aspendos as the third most significant city in Pamphylia during the Roman era. Even during the Byzantine era, Aspendos kept some relevance, however it was no longer the booming metropolis it once was. By the late Roman period, Aspendos had fallen into decay, which only deteriorated throughout Byzantine times. However, even as the city began to deteriorate, its defenses and strategic location kept it a bastion in the region throughout the medieval period.

Cultural Legacy

Aspendos’ cultural contributions continue to be of importance today. The city’s historic theatre, one of the best-preserved specimens of ancient Greco-Roman architecture, serves as a reminder of its cultural and artistic heritage. Aspendos has produced prominent intellectuals, like Demetrius, a disciple of the philosopher Apollonius of Soli. The historian Diodorus was also from Aspendos, cementing the city’s position as a center of study and intellect in antiquity.

Aspendos’ rich history and cultural achievements provide an engrossing look into the complexity of ancient civilizations. Its emergence as a wealthy commercial empire, political entanglements, and final decline provide valuable insights into the dynamics of the ancient Mediterranean world, leaving an indelible legacy that continues to interest historians and enthusiasts alike.

Aspendos: The Best-Preserved Theatre of Antiquity

Aspendos, an old city in the Turkish district of Antalya, is well-known for its extraordinary historical legacy, particularly the Roman Theatre of Aspendos. This magnificent monument, widely recognized as one of the best-preserved ancient theaters, continues to enchant visitors with its majesty and historical significance. Built during the Roman Empire, the theatre demonstrates the architectural prowess of its designers and serves as a tribute to the region’s rich cultural past.

The Roman Theatre, located in the middle of Aspendos, is a wonder of engineering as well as a towering emblem of ancient times. With a circumference of 96 metres (315 feet), this theatre can seat up to 7,000 people. Even now, its acoustics, seating arrangement, and stage design are breathtaking, providing a look into the elegance of ancient Roman construction. The theatre’s capacity is not confined to its original layout; during contemporary events such as the Aspendos Culture and Film Festival, it has accommodated over 20,000 people, demonstrating its enduring value as a cultural institution.

Zenon, an Aspendos native, directed the construction of the theatre in 155 AD. This structure served as a social and cultural nexus for the local community in addition to providing entertainment. The reason that the theatre has lasted over the centuries in such good shape is due in part to continual preservation efforts, including renovations done by the Seljuqs during the medieval period. The Seljuqs, who eventually governed the region, used the theatre for various purposes, including a caravanserai, or rest stop for travelers, assuring its preservation. In the 13th century, the stage building was turned into a palace, indicating the site’s versatility and long-term value.

The Architecture of Aspendos Theatre

Aspendos Theatre’s architectural design is a wonderful blend of form and function. The theatre, like other ancient structures, was designed to be as simple and inexpensive as possible. A component of the edifice was blended into the natural terrain, with the theatre built on the hill where the Citadel (Acropolis) stood. The next parts were built with vaulted arches, which not only supplied structural support but also resulted in the theatre’s famous tiered seating.

The theatre’s high stage, supported by columns that have persisted to this day, visually and acoustically separated the audience from the outside world, adding to the immersive experience of the performances. The scaenae frons, a backdrop that has largely remained intact, added to the stage’s definition by framing the players and dramatic action. The reflective hardwood ceiling that formerly covered the stage has tragically faded away, but its legacy lives on in the theatre’s design and arrangement.

The velarium, an awning that protected the audience from the sun, was supported by 58 masts, the post holes of which can still be seen today in the top floors of the theatre. This awning was an essential component for comfort, providing shade to spectators during lengthy performances. The theatre’s orchestra, with a diameter of 23.87 metres, was a focal point of the room, while the columnatio, or stage backdrop, rose to a height of 15.7 metres, adding to the overpowering feeling of size and drama.

The Roman Aqueduct: An Ingenious Engineering Feat

The Roman aqueduct is one of ancient Aspendos’ most notable and enduring monuments. This engineering marvel, which stretches 19 kilometers, was critical to the city’s water supply and is regarded one of the most important Roman aqueducts in the region. What distinguishes this aqueduct is its usage of an inverted siphon for the last 2 kilometers of its journey. This innovation enabled the engineers to reduce the height of the arches while still adequately conveying water, a breakthrough technology at the time.

The siphon system was divided into three portions, each separated by two towers from which water climbed and descended. These towers are a monument to the engineers’ creativity, and they still remain at a height of 30 metres. The central part of the aqueduct was supported by 46 arches, some of which still remain proudly, reminding us of the structure’s magnificent magnitude. The siphon worked by maintaining a pressure of 400kPa (4 bar) in the pipes, supplying around 5,600 cubic meters of water every day. The pipes were constructed from precisely fitted limestone blocks glued together with a mortar mix of lime and olive oil, which expanded when wet, ensuring a secure seal. The aqueduct was built between the middle of the second century and the end of the third century, and an inscription shows that Tiberius Claudius Italicus spent a large sum of 2 million denarii on its construction.

Additional Monuments and Remains in Aspendos

Aspendos is not only home to the Roman Theatre and Aqueduct, but it also has other notable archaeological relics that demonstrate its former robust status as a Roman city. Nearby, tourists can explore the remnants of a Roman stadium, baths, basilica, agora, and nymphaeum, all of which provide insight into ancient Aspendos’ daily life. The stadium, which was most likely utilized for athletic events and public games, sheds light on the recreational activities that dominated Roman social life. The baths and basilica emphasize the significance of public places in Roman civilization, acting as both relaxation areas and sites for legal and political proceedings.

Another notable adjacent landmark is the 13th-century reconstruction of the Roman Eurymedon Bridge. This bridge, which spans the Eurymedon River, played an important role in aiding regional trade and communication. Today, it stands as an enduring symbol of the Romans’ engineering capabilities and their long-lasting imprint on the terrain.

Aspendos, with its extraordinary preservation of historic ruins, provides a rare opportunity to step back in time and experience the grandeur of the Roman Empire. From the breathtaking theatre to the innovative aqueduct, each monument offers a look into a world that once thrived here, leaving a legacy that continues to inspire and captivate.

The Coins of Aspendos: A Historical and Cultural Legacy

The ancient city of Aspendos, located in Pamphylia in southern Asia Minor, was a major actor in the ancient world, and its coinage sheds light on its culture, economy, and history. Aspendian coins date back to the Persian period, about the mid-5th century BC, and reflect the start of a centuries-long practice of currency minting. The silver stater series, produced between 420 and 300/250 BC, is one of the most well-known of these ancient coins. These coins, with their unusual images of wrestlers and slingers, offer an intriguing look into Aspendos’ values and legacy.

The Iconography of the Wrestlers: Symbolism and Significance

Aspendos’ most memorable coins are definitely the staters with two naked wrestlers grappling on the obverse. These wrestlers, represented in dynamic combat stances, are frequently accompanied by writings or symbols, which give levels of meaning to the artwork. On the reverse, a slinger in a throwing stance, often flanked by a Triskeles, a city sign, indicates Aspendos’ ethnicity. The Triskeles, a three-legged insignia, has become an enduring feature on Aspendian coinage, representing both the city and its cultural identity.

The wrestlers themselves are the focus of much scholarly debate. Wrestling was not only a popular sport in antiquity, but it also featured in the ancient Olympic Games. This raises the likelihood that Aspendos was well-known for its wrestlers or had won important Olympic wrestling competitions in the mid-5th century BC. The presence of the wrestler image on Aspendos coinage for almost a century implies that wrestling played an important cultural and symbolic role in the city’s identity. It is also possible that the wrestlers portrayed on these coins commemorate a legendary occurrence, such as a wrestling bout between the Greek city-founder Polypoites of Thessaly and a local Pamphilian monarch. According to legend, Polypoites emerged triumphant and was handed the territory surrounding Aspendos, with the defeated ruler most likely named Aspendos, thus giving the city its name.

The Slinger: A Cultural and Military Symbol

The reverse of Aspendian coins frequently depicts a slinger in the act of throwing, emphasizing the weapon’s military and cultural prominence in the region. Shepherds in the rocky interior of Aspendos employed the sling, a typical weapon in southern Asia Minor, to defend their flocks from wolves and robbers. The link between the slinger and the name of Aspendos is particularly telling—derived from the Greek term “Sphendonan,” meaning “to throw with a slinger,” the city’s name emphasizes the crucial role of slingers in its culture.

The back of the coins depicts a slinger, which connects with the mythology surrounding the city’s origin. According to ancient geographer Dionysios Periegetes, Mopsos, one of Aspendos’ founding leaders, was among the early immigrants. As a result, the slinger may serve as a symbol of the city’s origins and link to the founding heroes who established its identity.

Aspendos’ Role in the Ancient World: Economic Power and Cultural Identity

By the fifth century BC, Aspendos had become the most powerful city in Pamphylia, thanks in large part to its advantageous location along the navigable Eurymedon River. The city’s wealth was boosted by its engagement in the trade of salt, oil, and wool, all of which were highly valued commodities in ancient times. The city’s wealth of silver coinage reflects its economic success, underscoring Aspendos’ commercial prominence.

The legends on the reverses of Aspendian coins, such as “ESTFEDIIYS,” the city’s ancient Anatolian name, serve as a reminder of its lengthy history and cultural legacy. The presence of such inscriptions on coins reflects the city’s pride in its identity and desire to emphasize its position in the larger world.

The Evolution of Aspendian Coinage

Aspendos’ coins saw significant alterations over the years, particularly in design and imagery. The wrestler motif, which first appeared around 400 BC, superseded earlier portrayals of military figures such as hoplite warriors and cavalrymen on the obverse of coins. The change toward the wrestler design was most likely due to both the popularity of the sport and the wrestler’s symbolic value as a figure signifying power, tenacity, and Aspendos’ heroic legacy.

As the centuries passed, the wrestling motif evolved. The wrestlers were shown in various battle stances, each presenting their own version of the theme. This constant style became a symbol of Aspendos and its legacy. However, in the 320s BC, the wrestler coins gave way to Alexander the Great’s universal currency, bringing an end to this distinct phase of Aspendian coinage.

During the fourth century BC, other settlements in the region, like the ancient city of Selge in Pisidia, began minting their own coins that closely resembled the Aspendian wrestler series. These replica coins demonstrate the impact of Aspendos’ currency on nearby communities, as well as the broader cultural and economic connections that existed throughout the ancient Mediterranean.