Aphrodisias, located in ancient Caria, was a Hellenistic Greek city celebrated for its veneration of the goddess Aphrodite. Its origins date back to at least the 3rd century BCE, when it was known as Lelégōn Pólis (City of the Leleges), Megálē Pólis (Great City), and Ninóē. Over time, it developed into a prominent metropolitan center, thriving under Greek and Roman governance. By the Late Antique period, it had been incorporated into the Byzantine Empire and called Stauropolis, the City of the Cross.

Aphrodisias, situated in present-day Turkey, lies about 100 kilometers inland from the Aegean coast, flourishing in the rich valley of the Morsynus River. The city’s urban design adhered to a clear orthogonal grid, with the exception of some edifices, including the esteemed Temple of Aphrodite. The closeness of affluent marble quarries influenced the city’s artistic identity, cultivating an extraordinary sculptural legacy that reverberated across the Roman Empire.

Aphrodisias maintained a significant relationship with Rome owing to its reverence for Aphrodite, whom prominent Roman figures—including Sulla, Julius Caesar, and Augustus—esteemed highly. This bond conferred to the city a preferential tax-exempt status, which stimulated its economic and cultural advancement. The city thrived as a leading hub for marble sculpting, creating superb statues and reliefs that embellished imperial capitals.

The identity of Aphrodisias was closely linked to the veneration of Aphrodite, whose cult statue in the city unusually integrated Anatolian and Hellenic religious traditions. This composite depiction of the goddess highlighted the city’s amalgamation of Eastern and Western spiritual influences. Despite the official Christianization of the Roman Empire, Aphrodisias persisted as a stronghold of classical paganism, with its temple operating until the early 6th century CE until its eventual transformation into a Christian church.

The city’s closeness to marble quarries solidified its status as an exceptional hub for stone artistry. Aphrodisian sculptors were celebrated for their expertise in creating realistic portraiture and mythological scenes. Their creations embellished the grand estates of monarchs and enhanced civic edifices from Rome to Constantinople. The creativity peaked in Late Antiquity as the demand for marble busts, monuments of governors, and representations of philosophers rose throughout the empire.

Aphrodisias was not only a center of religion and art but also a confluence of cultures. The city’s inscriptions, totaling in the hundreds, demonstrate a dynamic amalgamation of Greek, Roman, Carian, Jewish, and Christian influences. These manuscripts offer a unique insight into the social, political, and economic structure of an ancient city that integrated various traditions.

The city’s ruins, carefully maintained for thousands of years, demonstrate its past magnificence. Notable among its constructions are:

• The Temple of Aphrodite – The spiritual nucleus of the city, later transformed into a Christian basilica.
• The Agora and Bouleuterion – The bustling marketplace and council chamber, embodying the city’s political and economic vitality.
• The Hadrianic Baths – A testament to the Roman tradition of communal bathing and social interaction.
• The Theater – An arena of entertainment and civic discourse, harmonizing Greek and Roman architectural principles.
• The Stadium – One of the best-preserved ancient stadiums, showcasing the significance of athletic competitions in public life.

By the early 7th century CE, Aphrodisias had diminished in significance, entirely forsaken as changing political and economic dynamics transformed the region. Nonetheless, its seclusion served as a fortunate protection, safeguarding its ruins from significant destruction. Current conservation efforts at locations such as the Bouleuterion and Temple of Aphrodite exemplify effective strategies for safeguarding archaeological heritage.

In 2017, Aphrodisias was included on the UNESCO World Heritage list, acknowledging its cultural and historical importance. The city stands as a lasting witness to the inventiveness, commitment, and cultural synthesis that characterized the ancient world, as scholars and visitors persist in their exploration of its marvels.

History of Aphrodisias

Aphrodisias, the renowned city of the Roman province of Caria, was a center of culture, art, and intellectualism in antiquity. This ancient city, named for the goddess Aphrodite, flourished as a prominent urban hub, benefiting from the patronage of both Hellenistic monarchs and subsequent Roman emperors. Aphrodisias gained prominence for its thriving schools of philosophy and sculpture, contributing significantly to the artistic and intellectual heritage of the ancient world.

A distinctive characteristic of the city was its ample availability to superior white and blue-grey Carian marble, abundantly quarried from the adjacent slopes. This resource supplied the fundamental material for the city’s magnificent architecture and sculptures, solidifying its status as a center of sculptural distinction. Aphrodisian sculptors were highly regarded across the Roman Empire, and their creations, especially depictions of the Aphrodite of Aphrodisias, have been found as far as Pax Julia in Lusitania. A multitude of these statues endure, providing insight into the artistic excellence that once thrived in this ancient metropolis.

Notwithstanding its magnificence, the city’s prosperity diminished as historical circumstances evolved. During the late 5th century, Aphrodisias persisted as a stronghold of pagan customs, despite the ascendance of Christianity in the area. Nevertheless, the city’s resistance was challenged by a devastating earthquake in the early 7th century, resulting in its demise. To eliminate its pagan background, the city was renamed Stauropolis, signifying ‘City of the Cross.’ By the 8th century, it was designated as Caria, a name that ultimately shaped its contemporary Turkish appellation, Geyre. During the Byzantine era, it maintained a degree of administrative significance as the center of a fiscal district (dioikesis), however its period of prominence had long since diminished.

Aphrodisias saw more misfortunes during the medieval period. It was looted by the rebel Theodore Mankaphas in 1188 and subsequently ravaged by the Seljuk Turks in 1197. By the late 13th century, it succumbed irrevocably to Turkish dominion, signifying the conclusive end of its hitherto illustrious autonomy.

Geological History

Aphrodisias, being in a seismically active area, has suffered recurrent destruction from significant earthquakes over time. The 4th and 7th centuries experienced notably catastrophic seismic events, with one occurrence in the 4th century affecting the water table. This geological upheaval made certain areas of the city susceptible to persistent flooding, requiring the implementation of emergency plumbing systems, traces of which remain visible today.

The seismic cataclysms of the 7th century were particularly devastating, diminishing Aphrodisias to a mere remnant of its former glory. The city’s reduced population and economic decline resulted in the neglect of many of its magnificent edifices. Over time, the contemporary settlement of Geyre largely obscured the ruins of the ancient city, concealing much of its classical grandeur. In the 20th century, initiatives were undertaken to relocate the village, revealing the relics of Aphrodisias for archeological examination. A new Geyre now exists nearby, safeguarding the original city as a testimony to its historical importance.

Ecclesiastical History

With the ascendance of Christianity in the region, Aphrodisias—renamed Stauropolis—emerged as a significant ecclesiastical hub. The city served as the headquarters of a metropolitan bishopric, overseeing numerous suffragan dioceses. In the 7th century, Stauropolis governed twenty-eight suffragan bishops, but by the early 10th century, this figure had marginally decreased to twenty-six.

The significance of the see is thoroughly recorded, with Le Quien’s Oriens Christianus (I, 899–904) enumerating twenty bishops who presided in Stauropolis. The city’s ecclesiastical significance has persisted over the centuries, and currently, Stauropolis continues to be a titular metropolitan see of the Roman Catholic Church, referred to in Latin as Archidioecesis Stauropolitana. Although the city has become obscure, its religious legacy persists, preserved in the records of Christian history.

Architectural Structures, Conservation, and Restoration

The historic city of Aphrodisias, celebrated for its significant heritage and architectural magnificence, has experienced comprehensive conservation and restoration initiatives. The initiatives, led by specialists Thomas Kaefer, Gerhard Paul, and Trevor Proudfoot, aim to conserve and showcase the city’s cultural history globally.

Tetrapylon (Monumental Gate)

The Tetrapylon, a formidable monumental gateway, exemplifies the architectural skill of ancient architects. Located at the end of the city’s main north-south avenue, it signifies the entry to the vast courtyard that leads to the Sanctuary of Aphrodite. Built in 200 AD, the edifice exemplifies the sophistication of the Corinthian architecture, featuring elaborately carved capitals and fluted columns.

The term “Tetrapylon” derives from the Greek terms tetra (four) and pylon (gateway), accurately reflecting its structure of four columns on each side. This extraordinary gateway epitomized the city’s magnificence and functioned as an ornamental entrance to its hallowed grounds.

East of the Tetrapylon, a small yet notable mausoleum made of the esteemed white marble from Aphrodisias contains the remains of Prof. Dr. Kenan T. Erim. An ardent archaeologist, Erim devoted almost thirty years (1961-1990) to revealing and advocating the heritage of Aphrodisias globally.

Comprehensive restoration initiatives have guaranteed the Tetrapylon’s structural integrity. Absent architectural elements were meticulously reconstructed, utilizing additional stone replacements as needed to fortify the structure. Precision laser scanning and 3D modeling facilitated the reconstruction of fractured portions, guaranteeing historical authenticity and structural integrity.

Temple of Aphrodite

The Temple of Aphrodite, constructed during the Archaic period, served as the spiritual center of Aphrodisias. The city’s finest sculptors, celebrated for their exceptional artistry, utilized the region’s plentiful marble to produce stunning sculptures and reliefs. Evidence of a prestigious sculpture school that thrived in antiquity has emerged through the discovery of unfinished and experimental works, along with numerous complete statues excavated in the Agora.

Ornately decorated sarcophagi, frequently featuring garland motifs and columnar patterns, demonstrate the city’s artistic legacy. Moreover, elaborately carved pilasters, adorned with intertwined human, avian, and animal images among acanthus leaves, underscore the sculptors’ exceptional attention to detail.

In the 5th century, the temple experienced a significant transformation, being converted into a Christian basilica. This significant change occurred subsequent to the edict of Emperor Zeno during 481-484 AD, who aimed to curtail Hellenistic religious activities. The temple emerged as a center of pagan opposition, spearheaded by Illus, who vowed to reinstate Hellenistic rituals in contravention of imperial edicts.

Restoration efforts have concentrated on unifying remaining architectural components. Experts utilized non-invasive cleaning methods to eliminate biological development while fortifying delicate surfaces with micro-injections of lime-based mortar. Structural evaluations persist in informing long-term conservation plans.

Hadrian’s Baths

During Emperor Hadrian’s visit to Aphrodisias, the local council commemorated his presence by ordering an extravagant spa complex. This expansive establishment included distinct areas for men and women and contained a variety of specialty chambers:

• Apodyterium (Dressing Room)
• Frigidarium (Cold Room)
• Tepidarium (Warm Room)
• Caldarium (Hot Room)

The structure prominently features a marble pool at the entryway, highlighted by grand columns. Comprehensive conservation initiatives, commenced in 2010, aimed at enhancing structural integrity. The restoration procedure involved careful work on the hypocausts, brick supports, and marble flooring, especially in Rooms 4, 5, and 12, which had experienced considerable damage.

Stadium

The Aphrodisias Stadium, among the most well-preserved ancient arenas in the Mediterranean, exemplifies remarkable engineering. Measuring roughly 270 by 60 meters, it has the capacity to host up to 30,000 spectators. The stadium was initially constructed for athletic competitions but was altered after a catastrophic earthquake in the 7th century. The demolition of the city’s theater required modifications, with portions of the stadium converted for theatrical productions and community events.

Recent stabilization initiatives have involved the fortification of the sitting tiers and the consolidation of fallen masonry. Advanced imaging technology has been utilized to identify structural vulnerabilities, facilitating focused conservation efforts.

Sebasteion South Building

The Sebasteion, jointly dedicated to Aphrodite, Augustus, and the Roman populace, served as a significant political and religious edifice. A relief on the southern portico distinctly depicts the city’s personification presenting tribute to the cult statue of Aphrodite, so supporting the divine pedigree asserted by the imperial family.

The anastylosis of the three-story south structure has been substantially finalized under the direction of Thomas Kaefer and Gerhard Paul. Architectural components, such as columns, capitals, and frieze blocks, were meticulously restored. The integrity of the structure was augmented through mortar filling and the use of color to unify new elements with original components.

South Agora and Pool

Kenan Erim’s excavations in the 1980s revealed the eastern and western portions of the South Agora pool. Subsequent research in 2011 uncovered an intricate water system, leading to a prolonged excavation initiative financed by Mica and Ahmet Ertegün. Research reveals that the region was a lush park, adorned with palm palms and flanked by marble porticos, akin to comparable areas in Imperial Rome.

To protect this historically significant region, conservation crews have implemented desalinization treatments on submerged marble components and fortified the pool’s margins with custom-fabricated stone supports.

Groundwater Management

In response to persistent hydrological issues, Ege University researcher İlhan Kayan conducted a study to evaluate the subsurface water levels of the city. As a result, a high-capacity pump was placed in the South Agora, and the old drainage systems were meticulously inspected and restored. This approach has markedly enhanced site drainage, alleviating prolonged flood damage.