Antiphellus, once a thriving coastal city of Lycia, carries an enigmatic past shrouded in the layers of antiquity. Originally known as Habesos, the city finds its earliest mention under its Greek appellation in a 4th-century BCE inscription. Initially settled by the Lycians, it fell under Persian dominion in the 6th century BCE, marking the beginning of a tumultuous history influenced by successive empires. As a crucial harbor town, Antiphellus initially served the inland city of Phellus, a symbiotic relationship that would later reverse as Phellus waned and Antiphellus ascended in prominence. By the time it was minting its own currency, Antiphellus had become the dominant urban center of the region, its economic vitality fueled by maritime trade.

Under Roman rule, Antiphellus reached its zenith, bolstered by commerce in cedarwood and the age-old practice of sponge diving. This period saw the city evolve from a mere port into a sophisticated and affluent metropolis. However, prosperity was not without its perils. The great earthquake of 141 CE ravaged Lycia, and Antiphellus, like many other settlements, suffered substantial damage. Relief funds from Opramoas of Rhodiapolis, a prominent civic benefactor, likely played a role in the city’s reconstruction, ensuring its continued prominence well into the late Roman period.

By the early 19th century, Antiphellus had faded into obscurity. When Irish naval officer Sir Francis Beaufort identified its remains in the 1820s, the site was entirely deserted. Later, in April 1840, Charles Fellows, an English archaeologist and explorer, documented the presence of over 100 stone tombs scattered across the landscape. However, modern expansion has not been kind to Antiphellus. The growth of Kaş (formerly Andifili) led to significant destruction of ancient structures, with many of the sarcophagi dismantled for their stones, repurposed into contemporary buildings.

Among the city’s most intriguing remnants are inscriptions written in the extinct Lycian language, dating back to the 4th century BCE. These relics provide invaluable glimpses into the region’s linguistic heritage, though much remains undeciphered. One of the most enigmatic examples is the inscription on the so-called ‘King’s Tomb,’ a striking monument that continues to puzzle epigraphists.

The city’s architectural grandeur is best exemplified by its Hellenistic amphitheater, an astonishingly well-preserved structure that originally accommodated 4,000 spectators. Uniquely, it lacks a permanent stone stage—an anomaly among ancient theaters. Set against a stunning seafront backdrop, it holds the distinction of being the only theater in Anatolia with an uninterrupted view of the Mediterranean.

In the northeastern reaches of the theater, a burial chamber adorned with 24 female reliefs hewn into bedrock stands as a testament to the city’s sophisticated stonework. Another must-see monument is the renowned ‘Lion Sarcophagus’ in the Long Bazaar, which features lion-head reliefs on its lid and an eight-line inscription in Lycian. Due to the indecipherable text, it has been romantically dubbed the ‘King’s Tomb,’ perpetuating myths about its illustrious occupant.

The necropolis of Antiphellus, set into the cliffs behind the modern town, showcases some of the finest examples of Lycian funerary art. These rock-cut tombs, adorned with intricate façades and inscriptions, provide crucial insights into the burial customs of the era. Additionally, vestiges of city walls from the Hellenistic period remain scattered across the landscape, particularly on the peninsula facing Meis Island. Nearby, the ruins of a small 1st-century BCE temple, alongside the remnants of a church later repurposed as a mosque, underscore the city’s layered religious history.

Despite the relentless march of time and encroaching modern development, Antiphellus retains echoes of its former splendor. Its surviving ruins, from the seafront amphitheater to the rock-hewn necropolis, stand as silent witnesses to the city’s past grandeur. For historians and travelers alike, Antiphellus remains a destination imbued with mystery, a relic of a bygone civilization waiting to be explored.

The Ancient City of Antiphellus: A Legacy of Lycian and Hellenic Civilization

The city known in antiquity as Antiphellus has a deep-rooted history dating back to the Lycian civilization. Its original Lycian name, Habesos, and the alternative pre-Hellenic designation, Habessus, attest to its early settlement before Greek influence took hold. The Roman naturalist and military commander Pliny the Elder recorded these names, affirming the city’s prominence long before the Hellenistic era. Archaeological discoveries, including architectural elements now housed in the Antalya Museum, corroborate the existence of Lycian habitation as early as the 6th century BCE. These findings suggest that Antiphellus, alongside its inland counterpart Phellus, was an integral part of the Lycian cultural and economic landscape.

Political and Economic Significance in the Lycian League

As a recognized member of the Lycian League, Antiphellus held the privilege of casting one vote in the regional confederation, underscoring its status within this influential alliance. The city emerged as a crucial center of commerce, further evidenced by the minting of its own currency—an unmistakable marker of economic self-sufficiency. However, prosperity often invites conflict, and in the mid-6th century BCE, the region fell under Persian control, marking a turbulent chapter in its history. Despite this occupation, Antiphellus continued to function as a vital trade hub, linking the Lycian interior with maritime routes.

A Coastal City Without Fortifications

Situated at the head of a picturesque bay along the southern Lycian coast, Antiphellus functioned as the principal harbor for Phellus, facilitating the exchange of goods and cultural influences. Unlike many ancient cities that prioritized defense, Antiphellus notably lacked both an acropolis and a defensive wall. This absence is particularly striking given its coastal vulnerability, suggesting either a sustained period of relative peace or a reliance on natural topography and maritime connections for protection.

The Greek name Antiphellus first appears in an inscription from the 4th century BCE on a tomb in modern-day Kaş. As Phellus waned in significance, its port city flourished, ultimately surpassing its inland counterpart as the preeminent settlement in the region.

Antiphellus in Roman Records and Cultural Memory

Unlike Phellus, Antiphellus is explicitly mentioned in the Stadiasmus Maris Magni, a Roman-era maritime guidebook that detailed navigational routes across the Mediterranean. Roman imperial coins discovered in the area bear the inscription “Ἀντιφελλειτων,” confirming the city’s enduring presence during the empire’s rule. Pliny the Elder, in his extensive natural histories, noted that the waters near Antiphellus yielded the softest sponges—an observation that highlights the city’s role in regional trade beyond traditional commodities.

The geographer Strabo, however, erroneously classified Antiphellus as an inland settlement, listing it alongside Phellus and Chimaera. This misplacement in historical texts underscores the complexities of ancient geographical knowledge and the occasional inaccuracies that permeated even authoritative sources.

The Earthquake of 141–142 CE and Its Aftermath

Antiphellus was likely among the many Lycian cities affected by the devastating earthquake that struck the region between 141 and 142 CE. The tremors triggered a formidable tsunami, which inundated the coastline and penetrated deep into the mainland. The city’s reconstruction efforts may have benefited from financial contributions by Opramoas of Rhodiapolis, a well-documented benefactor known for his generosity in aiding disaster-stricken communities. The extent of the destruction remains uncertain, yet the resilience of Antiphellus ensured its continued habitation and economic activity.

Antiphellus as an Ecclesiastical Center

During the Byzantine period, Antiphellus became a suffragan bishopric under the metropolitan see of Myra, the provincial capital of Lycia. One of its notable bishops, Theodorus, participated in the Council of Chalcedon in 451 CE, a significant event in early Christian theological debates. Additionally, Theodorus was recorded as attending a provincial synod in 458 CE concerning the assassination of Proterius of Alexandria. Due to health complications affecting his hands, a priest named Eustathius signed the synod’s official acts on his behalf. Though the bishopric is no longer active, the Catholic Church continues to recognize Antiphellus as a titular see, preserving its ecclesiastical legacy.

The Modern Legacy of Antiphellus: From Andifili to Kaş

The ruins of Antiphellus now lie within the contemporary municipality of Kaş, Turkey. Before the compulsory population exchange between Greece and Turkey in 1922–1923, the settlement was known as Andifili, a name that echoes its ancient origins. During the 19th century, historical sources also referred to it as Andiffelo, further illustrating the linguistic and cultural evolution of the region over time.

Archaeology of Antiphellus: Unraveling the Ancient Lycian Settlement

The ruins of Antiphellus, a once-thriving Lycian city, offer a tantalizing glimpse into an ancient world that has largely faded into obscurity. By the early 19th century, the site was nearly abandoned, its remnants scattered across the rugged Anatolian landscape. Yet, as European explorers and scholars ventured into the eastern Mediterranean, Antiphellus gradually emerged from historical oblivion. Through the meticulous observations of early travelers and the work of archaeologists, the city’s enigmatic past has been pieced together, revealing a civilization steeped in artistry, maritime prowess, and funerary traditions.

Early Exploration and Rediscovery

By 1828, Antiphellus had dwindled into a near-deserted settlement, its grandeur reduced to the silent testimony of ruins. However, the decades that followed saw an increasing interest in the site’s historical significance. Among the earliest to document its remnants was Sir Francis Beaufort, an Irish naval officer whose exploration of the Lycian coast in the 19th century brought Antiphellus into scholarly focus. His accounts describe the imposing amphitheater, as well as clusters of inscribed and unadorned sarcophagi. Noting the crude execution of the inscriptions, Beaufort speculated that they were of considerable antiquity. Intriguingly, he recorded a number of uncommon characters interspersed among the Greek script, suggesting linguistic and cultural exchanges that remain subjects of academic inquiry.

The Contributions of Charles Fellows

Charles Fellows, an English archaeologist and intrepid explorer, visited Antiphellus in April 1838, captivated by its wealth of funerary monuments. On a subsequent journey in April 1840, he meticulously cataloged over a hundred tombs, shedding light on the city’s extensive necropolis. In 1841, he produced detailed illustrations of sarcophagi, pediments, and tomb entrances, providing an invaluable record of Lycian craftsmanship. His findings were later incorporated into Thomas Abel Brimage Spratt’s “Travels in Lycia, Milyas, and the Cibyratis” (1847), which included a plan of the ancient ruins, solidifying Antiphellus’ place in the annals of archaeological study.

One of Fellows’ most remarkable discoveries was a tomb with a bilingual inscription, a rare and crucial artifact for understanding the linguistic dynamics of ancient Lycia. A cast of this inscription was made in 1844, ensuring its preservation for further study. Additionally, he sketched the now-iconic pillar tomb that stands prominently in the heart of modern Kaş, an enduring relic of a bygone civilization.

The Legacy of Lycian Inscriptions

The vestiges of Antiphellus, particularly its hillside tombs, hold profound historical and linguistic significance. Among them is a sarcophagus elevated on a high base, its surface etched with a lengthy inscription in Lycian B—now more commonly identified as Milyan, a Luwian dialect. These inscriptions, dating back to the 4th century BCE, provide crucial evidence of the Lycian script’s evolution alongside Greek epigraphy. One such inscription, meticulously copied by Fellows in 1840, contains the ethnic designation “ΑΝΤΙΦΕΛΛΕΙΤΟΥ,” an unequivocal reference to the city’s ancient inhabitants.

The Erosion of Antiphellus’ Archaeological Heritage

Despite its rich past, much of Antiphellus’ archaeological wealth has succumbed to the inexorable march of urbanization. The modern town of Kaş, which gradually enveloped the ruins, has led to the loss of numerous historical structures. Even during Fellows’ second visit, he lamented the rapid expansion of the settlement, which had already absorbed many of the ancient relics. By the mid-20th century, systematic excavations were undertaken in 1952, yet the results were meager. The archaeological team concluded that 4th-century Antiphellus was likely a modest settlement, its structures concentrated around the harbor.

Amphitheatre of Kaş: A Testament to Hellenistic Architecture

Nestled within the serene coastal town of Kaş, the ancient Hellenistic amphitheatre stands as an enduring relic of antiquity. Situated a mere 500 meters from the town center, this remarkable structure offers visitors a glimpse into the grandeur of past civilizations. The amphitheatre, capable of seating approximately 4,000 spectators, is unique among its Anatolian counterparts due to its spectacular sea-facing orientation. Unlike most theatres of the Hellenistic period, it was deliberately constructed without a proscenium, ensuring that the mesmerizing backdrop of the Mediterranean remained unobstructed.

The amphitheatre’s architectural integrity has been challenged by the passage of time and natural calamities. Historical accounts suggest that soon after its construction, the east wall succumbed to structural failure, likely the consequence of the devastating earthquake that struck the region in 141 CE. However, restoration efforts commenced shortly thereafter, with repairs believed to have been funded by Opramoas, a benefactor who played a significant role in the restoration of various Lycian structures. These renovations are discernible today, offering insight into ancient construction techniques and resilience.

Built primarily of irregular ashlar blocks, the amphitheatre’s retaining wall extends slightly beyond a perfect semicircle, a deviation from typical Hellenistic designs. Notably, the absence of a diazoma—the horizontal walkway separating seating tiers—as well as the lack of a permanent stone stage, distinguishes this structure from its contemporaries. These architectural nuances reinforce its uniqueness within the broader spectrum of Anatolian theatre design.

The King’s Tomb: A Glimpse into Lycian Burial Traditions

Among the myriad of historical treasures within Kaş, the 4th-century BCE Lycian Inscribed Mausoleum, commonly referred to as the King’s Tomb, remains one of the most enigmatic. Located along Uzunçarşı Street, this sarcophagus has withstood the test of time, preserving the grandeur of Lycian funerary practices.

The tomb’s foundation, or hyposorium, is hewn directly from solid rock, measuring approximately 1.5 meters in height. A sunken floor and an unsealed entrance allow for an unobstructed view of the tomb’s inner sanctum. The base, standing at 760 millimeters, supports an epitaph of extraordinary significance. Unlike conventional Lycian inscriptions, which typically adopt a solemn tone, the text adorning the King’s Tomb deviates from the norm. As observed by 19th-century explorer Charles Fellows, the inscription reads more like a poetic composition than a traditional funerary dedication. It is penned in the elusive Milyan language (also known as Lycian B), one of the most obscure Anatolian tongues, with only three known inscriptions surviving to this day. The incomplete nature of the text suggests either an oversight by the stonemason or an unfinished literary endeavor.

Resting atop the sarcophagus is a separate monolithic block, featuring intricately carved reliefs. Two prominent lion heads project from either side of the lid, a motif frequently associated with Lycian funerary symbolism. The four decorative panels depict standing human figures in relief, while the tomb’s pediment portrays a bearded man leaning on a staff beside a seated woman—presumably the tomb’s original occupants.

The King’s Tomb has garnered scholarly attention since the early 19th century. The first known depiction appeared in Luigi Mayer’s “Views in the Ottoman Empire” (1803), though it lacked extensive discussion. In subsequent decades, British archaeologist William Gell made a meticulous copy of the inscription, among the earliest attempts to document Lycian script. Between 1836 and 1842, multiple scholars, including Charles Texier, Charles Fellows, and Julius August Schönborn, furthered these efforts, culminating in an authoritative transcription by Ernst Kalinka in 1901. These scholarly endeavors have provided invaluable insights into the linguistic and cultural heritage of ancient Lycia.

Other Archaeological Remains

Despite the passage of centuries, Kaş retains a wealth of archaeological vestiges, though many of its ancient tombs have been lost to time. The Doric Tomb, situated above the amphitheatre, remains one of the most distinctive funerary structures. Carved directly into the rock face, it presents a cubic design measuring 4.5 meters per side. The east-facing entrance, standing at 1.9 meters, leads into a solitary chamber adorned with faint reliefs of dancing figures. These depictions, despite having been darkened by the tomb’s secondary use as a shepherd’s refuge, have allowed scholars to date the monument to the early 4th century BCE.

The tomb’s architectural embellishments include a base molding and shallow pilasters at each corner, though only one capital remains intact. A decorative frieze with mutules adorns the southern facade, while the entrance, originally sealed with a sliding stone door, features a meticulously crafted frame.

Among Kaş’s lesser-known ruins, the remnants of a small temple survive as silent witnesses to the town’s historical prominence. Comprising five courses of rectangular ashlar blocks, the temple is believed to have been constructed in the 1st century BCE, with significant modifications made four centuries later. The identity of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated remains a mystery, adding an air of intrigue to its existence.

Beyond the modern town, the rugged cliffs harbor additional Lycian rock tombs, one of which bears inscriptions in both Lycian and Latin. This dual inscription signifies a period of cultural overlap, likely occurring during the Roman annexation of Lycia. Along the shoreline, remnants of an ancient fortification wall remain visible, a testament to the defensive measures once employed to safeguard the city’s maritime access.

The harbor, strategically positioned along the seaward edge of the isthmus, benefited from a natural reef that provided protection against rough seas. Evidence suggests that this natural barrier was reinforced by human intervention, enhancing the port’s functionality. Unlike many Lycian cities, Antiphellus (modern Kaş) did not feature an acropolis or extensive fortifications, relying instead on its natural topography and maritime defenses.