Dara, located in northern Mesopotamia, served as a significant stronghold on the eastern boundary of the Roman Empire. A important military stronghold, its history intertwines with Roman-Persian battles, and its strategic importance in antiquity is indisputable. Throughout the years, Dara transformed from a military bastion into a prosperous commercial hub, acting as a nexus between empires and civilizations. Today, the vestiges of Dara’s former grandeur serve as a tribute to its intricate history, with the contemporary village of Dara in Mardin Province situated at its old site.

Dara’s inception dates back to the early 6th century, under the reign of Emperor Anastasius I (491-518 AD), who aimed to strengthen the eastern frontiers of the Eastern Roman Empire against the advancing Sassanid Persians. Believed to have been established in 505 AD, the city served a military function, created as a garrison to protect the empire from persistent Persian invasions. The city’s defensive walls extended 4 kilometers, enclosing a fortified fortress that exerted strategic influence over the region.

The citadel, located on a 50-meter-high hill, was positioned at the northern boundary of the city, offering a vantage point for defenders to observe any advancing armies. Dara’s position at the confluence of the Mesopotamian Plain and the Tur-Abdin Mountains was optimal, providing natural fortifications and a comprehensive vista of the adjacent landscape. The city’s design, a fusion of military need and architectural innovation, featured rock-hewn structures integrated into the limestone bedrock—a characteristic of the region’s old construction methods.

Dara’s importance extended beyond its original role as a military installation. Its significance in the enduring battle between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sassanid Empire was substantial, particularly during the 6th century. The city emerged as a pivotal site for numerous significant conflicts, notably the renowned Battle of Dara in 530 AD, where the troops of Byzantine Emperor Justinian I confronted the Sassanids. This conflict, a crucial confrontation of the age, underscored Dara’s strategic significance as a fortified city that supported the Roman fortifications in the region.

The city’s significance in the Roman-Persian wars continued thereafter. In the subsequent decades, Dara continued to be a center of military operations, with the Romans strengthening its fortifications over the reigns of multiple emperors. In 540 AD, the Sassanid forces temporarily seized the city, which was subsequently recaptured by the Romans. The repeated wars guaranteed that Dara’s position as a pivotal defensive bastion remained unassailable for generations.

Dara initially functioned as a strategic outpost, but it also evolved into a significant hub of trade and commerce, particularly under the reign of Emperor Anastasius. Historically referred to as Anastasiapolis, the city’s strategic position established it as a nexus for commerce routes connecting the Roman Empire with the remote territories of Persia and India. Archaeological evidence indicates that Dara thrived as a commercial hub, drawing merchants and tourists from throughout the ancient world.

The city’s prosperity, however, varied with the fluctuations of war and political turmoil. In the 7th century, the hitherto invincible fortress fell to the soldiers of the Umayyad Caliphate following the Arab invasions. During the Umayyad and subsequently the Abbasid era, Dara’s military prominence diminished, while it persisted as an important urban hub. By the 15th century, it had integrated into the Ottoman Empire, which sustained dominion over the region.

Notwithstanding these power transitions, the ruins of Dara remain a mute testament to its illustrious history. The vestiges of historic edifices, encompassing churches, bazaars, and fortifications, remain discernible now. The city’s rock-hewn architecture, formerly home to vibrant markets and military outposts, now rests in tranquility, with various surrounding locations repurposed as tombs in subsequent ages.

The remnants of Dara provide a captivating glimpse into ancient existence in northern Mesopotamia. The site prominently shows the remnants of a substantial church, which presumably functioned as a religious hub for the city’s residents. This edifice, accompanied by a dungeon, armory, and an intricate network of cellars, highlights the dual character of Dara as both a military bastion and a flourishing urban hub.

Dara’s archaeological artifacts extend outside the central city. The adjacent countryside features numerous tombs, many of which originate from the Late Roman period. The tombs, hewn into the rock sides encircling the city, resemble caves and serve as poignant reminders of the city’s extensive history and its function as a burial ground for the region’s elite.

Dara features a substantial dam, historically utilized to provide water to the city’s residents, alongside its military and religious edifices. This exceptional engineering achievement underscores the creativity of the city’s architects and their capacity to adapt to the demanding desert conditions of the Mesopotamian plain.

Dara’s geographical position amplifies its historical importance. Dara is located roughly 30 kilometers southeast of Mardin, 18 kilometers northwest of Nusaybin, and 7 kilometers north of Amuda in Syria, occupying a significant position along the southern slope of the Tur-Abdin Mountains. This geographical advantage afforded the city natural fortifications and enabled it to dominate the adjacent Mesopotamian Plain.

Dara, functioning as a military fortress, governed essential commercial routes, enabling the transit of commodities and individuals between the Roman and Persian empires. Its strategic position on the boundary enabled it to function as a crucial military and logistical outpost, while its nearness to the Persian border rendered it an essential asset in the persistent Roman-Persian rivalry.

The city’s historical importance transcends its military function. Certain researchers hypothesize that Dara might have functioned as a military stronghold before to the construction of the Eastern Roman citadel. The city is believed to be called after the Persian King Darius III (336-330 BC), with the ancient city acting as a crucial site during the conflicts between Darius and Alexander the Great.

The earliest documented reference to Dara in historical literature dates back to the 3rd century AD, when the ancient writer Iustinus Frontinus identified the city by its Greek appellation, Daras. Dara’s name has persisted in ancient documents over the centuries, signifying its lasting significance in the geopolitical context of the ancient Near East.

History

Foundation by Anastasius

The narrative of Dara commences amidst the tumultuous era of the Anastasian War (502–506), during which Roman armies encountered significant defeats against the encroaching Sassanids. The Roman generals, contending with the deficiencies of their strategic position, saw a significant shortcoming: they lacked a robust military base in the region capable of contesting Persian supremacy, especially in the city of Nisibis. This insight compelled Emperor Anastasius I to undertake decisive measures.

In 505 AD, while Sassanid King Kavadh I was engaged in Eastern battles, Anastasius capitalized on the situation to strengthen the Roman presence in the region. He commissioned the establishment of a new hamlet immediately west of Nisibis, adjacent to the Persian border. Dara, as the city was named, was constructed not alone as a military sanctuary but also as an essential hub for supplies and armaments. The site was selected with strategic accuracy—Dara was positioned near the desert’s periphery, enabling surveillance of both Persian and Arab troop movements.

Masons and laborers from over Mesopotamia were convened to construct the city rapidly. Dara was built on three hills, with the fortress located at the summit of the tallest mountain, representing Roman dominance. The city included remarkable infrastructure, including public baths, extensive storehouses, water cisterns, and fortified fortifications. The newly established settlement was originally designated as Anastasiopolis, in honor of the emperor, and served as the headquarters of the Roman Dux Mesopotamiae, so reinforcing its military and political importance.

Reconstruction by Justinian

Although the initial building of Dara was efficient, it was not devoid of shortcomings. Procopius, the Byzantine historian, noted that the swiftly constructed walls exhibited substandard workmanship, which was further aggravated by the severe circumstances of the Mesopotamian environment. Consequently, a significant portion of the city’s fortifications was dilapidated, rendering it susceptible to hostile sieges.

In the mid-6th century, Emperor Justinian I endeavored to rebuild the city’s fortifications. Recognizing Dara’s crucial role in defending the Roman East, Justinian commenced a comprehensive renovation initiative. The city was renamed Iustiniana Nova in his tribute. Under his direction, the fortifications were enhanced: the inner wall’s height was doubled to an astonishing 20 meters, while the towers were fortified and elevated to a fearsome 35 meters, presenting a daunting sight to any foe. A substantial moat, filled with water, was excavated to further impede enemy progress.

Justinian’s engineers utilized their inventiveness to guarantee the city’s endurance against prospective sieges. The adjacent river Cordes, once unimpeded, was redirected through a specially engineered canal that traversed the city’s center. This ensured a dependable water supply for the residents while enabling the defenders to obstruct water access to besieging forces by diverting the river into an underground channel that extended 65 kilometers to the north. This tactical approach would be crucial in the defense of Dara during numerous critical instances.

An intricate arch dam was built to protect the city from the constant risk of floods. This engineering feat was among the earliest of its type and enabled Dara’s inhabitants to endure the severe rains that had once wreaked devastation in the city. The dam reflected the sophisticated engineering prowess of the Byzantine Empire.

Moreover, the establishment of military barracks and two prominent churches—the Great Church and one dedicated to St. Bartholomew—reinforced the city’s status as an emblem of Roman dominance in the area.

Later History

Notwithstanding the impressive walls and strategic advances, Dara was unable to evade the tumult of its era. The city was besieged and seized by the Sassanid Persians led by King Khosrau I in 573–574. Subsequent to the peace accord established between the Romans and the Persians in 591, Dara was restored to the Byzantine Empire. The city’s military significance fluctuated with the changing tides of conflict.

In 604–605, Dara succumbed to the Persians led by Khosrau II following a protracted nine-month siege. In a remarkable turn of events, the Byzantine general Heraclius reclaimed the city, temporarily ensuring its retention under Roman control. By 639, the city capitulated to the invading Arab Muslim armies, signifying the cessation of its military significance.

Dara, once the nucleus of Roman defense, commenced its collapse. The city’s significance diminished, leading to its eventual neglect and gradual abandonment as the evolving political landscape and the emergence of new regional powers eclipsed its formerly formidable walls.

Modern History

Dara’s extensive history took a grim turn during the Armenian Genocide of 1915. During the Ottoman Empire’s violent assault against the Armenian populace, Dara emerged as a location of widespread crimes. The cisterns that previously held water for the city’s defenses were repurposed for a grim and tragic function: they were filled with the remains of slaughtered Armenians from adjacent areas, including Diyarbakır, Mardin, and Erzurum. The spring and summer of 1915 witnessed these atrocious events, leaving a lasting scar on the land that serves as a solemn reminder of history.

Currently, the village of Dara exists in the remnants of its historical significance, a tranquil community amid the ruins of a formerly illustrious metropolis. Although its military importance has diminished, the archeological vestiges of its history—fortifications, cisterns, and churches—persist in narrating the tale of a city that once had a pivotal position among empires.

The Ancient City of Dara: An Architectural and Cultural Marvel

The historic city of Dara, situated in southern Turkey, exemplifies the magnificence of Roman, Byzantine, and early Islamic architecture. This city, strategically located along essential trade routes, provides a significant insight into history, especially through its remarkable edifices and elaborate designs that consistently engage archaeologists and tourists alike. The city’s extensive history is prominently displayed by its necropolis, fortresses, aqueducts, and diverse religious and civic structures.

Necropolis (The Cemetery Area)

A notable feature of Dara is its rock-cut necropolis, situated on the hills to the west of the city. The necropolis consists of a vast array of tombs hewn into the bedrock, reflecting the city’s enduring veneration for death and the afterlife. These tombs, predominantly fashioned in the 6th century, were originally hewn from the stone resources supplied by the hills for the city’s development. Over time, the naturally flat façades of these geological structures were converted into a hallowed burial ground.

Three unique categories of tombs are present in the region: rock-cut tombs (6th century), sarcophagi (6th to 8th century), and plain cist-tombs (8th to 14th century). The rock-hewn chambers distinctly embody the ancient beliefs of the residents of Dara. Numerous graves were constructed with the notion of rebirth, honoring Mithras, the deity born from a rock, a pivotal figure in ancient paganism. Despite the population’s conversion to Christianity, remnants of pagan rituals endured, notably in the utilization of chamber tombs for numerous interments, potentially symbolizing a continuity between life and death.

Sarcophagi, particularly during the Roman era, were crafted to serve as a “home” for the soul of the deceased, a refuge intended to safeguard it in the afterlife. With the proliferation of Christianity, simpler cist tombs, characterized by their practical design and lack of extravagant features, gained popularity, mirroring the evolving spiritual dynamics of the city.

Large Gallery Grave

The expansive gallery burial is one of the most remarkable elements of Dara’s necropolis. This vast three-story edifice is hewn entirely from bedrock, demonstrating an exceptional degree of craftsmanship and architectural refinement. The structure features a rectangular layout oriented north-south, with a corridor or balcony extending along the upper level on the western, southern, and eastern sides.

The gallery grave, distinguished by its religious carvings, notably features representations of the prophet Ezekiel (Zulkifl) resurrecting the dead, and is believed to have been built following the Sassanid conquest of 573. It functioned as a memorial for the Eastern Roman populace who returned from exile after the peace treaty of 591. In 2009, excavations revealed human bones in the tomb’s lower level, indicating that these remains were collected for reburial, potentially to commemorate the deceased in alignment with the reanimation miracle described in the biblical narrative of Ezekiel.

The Fortification Walls

Dara’s fortifications were substantial, constructed to protect the city from assailants and sieges. The city’s walls, measuring around 4 kilometers in all, were deliberately constructed to enclose the three major hills upon which the city was established. Approximately 2.8 kilometers remain visible today, serving as a tribute to the city’s military strength.

The fortress walls were built with finely hewn stones on both the interior and exterior. Measurements indicate that the average wall thickness ranges from 3.70 to 3.80 meters, with specific parts reaching notable heights. During the reign of Emperor Anastasius I (491–518) and his successor, Justinian I (527–565), the wall height was substantially elevated to 29 meters, incorporating a second tier to create crenellations and apertures for defensive purposes. Currently, several portions of the walls remain at approximately 15 meters, providing a breathtaking perspective of the city’s historical fortifications.

Gates

Dara’s fortifications featured four principal gates, each strategically located in the cardinal directions: North, South, East, and West. The gates, essential for the city’s entrance and defense, were also fortified by substantial towers, constituting a component of the double-tower gate system. This design aimed to enhance security for individuals entering or exiting the city.

Besides the primary gates, the city included two water gates situated along the Cordis River that traverses the city. These gates facilitated the ingress of water into the city through arched apertures, employing iron portcullises to regulate the water’s flow. The South Gate, through which water flowed out of the city, possessed a like design. The water gates permitted water transportation and significantly contributed to the city’s defense, particularly during sieges.

The Agora

Dara’s Agora, or marketplace, is situated along the primary thoroughfare extending from the South Gate. This broad avenue, roughly 5.80 meters wide, was built with big stone blocks and bordered by a portico on its western side. The street was essential to the city’s commercial activities, linking Dara to the Silk Road and functioning as a meeting point for trade caravans from Mesopotamia.

The Agora served as the nucleus of the city’s commercial and social activities, transcending its role as a mere roadway. Excavations have revealed nine workshops and six houses associated with these commercial areas. The workshops, predominantly featuring square layouts of 5 x 5 meters, accommodated several businesses and crafts, enhancing Dara’s reputation as a prosperous urban center.

Cisterns and Water Systems

Dara’s sophisticated water infrastructure were crucial for the city’s survival, especially during sieges. The cisterns, engineered to collect water from the adjacent hills and disseminate it over the city, guaranteed a dependable water supply for the populace, even during disruptions to the city’s external connections. The water infrastructure enabled Dara to endure extended sieges, particularly those executed by the Sassanids, who aimed to deprive the city of water to compel its capitulation. Nevertheless, the Romans astutely utilized the city’s water storage, with cisterns serving a crucial function in the city’s defense.

The Castellum Aqua, an extensive water gathering and distribution chamber, is among the most remarkable monuments associated with this system. The Castellum Aqua, hewn into the bedrock on the southern slopes of the acropolis, comprises 10 cell-chambers, each measuring 50 meters in length and 4 meters in width. The cisterns linked to the Castellum Aqua could retain substantial quantities of water, guaranteeing that the city’s residents and defenders had access to water during crucial periods.

Religious Structures and Baptism Basin

Dara featured several notable religious edifices, including two prominent churches chronicled by the historian Procopius: the Great Church and St. Bartholomew Church. Theodora Lector relates that St. Bartholomew appeared in a dream to Emperor Anastasius I, imploring him to safeguard the city, in exchange for which Anastasius had the relics of St. Bartholomew transported to Dara.

A prominent religious element in the city is the baptismal basin situated to the northeast of the Great Church. This well maintained basin, intended for the baptism of adult converts to Christianity, with steps on either side. The basin represented the demise of the former wicked existence and the emergence into a new, more virtuous life.

The Mosaic Buildings

Dara featured numerous edifices embellished with elaborate mosaics, especially during the reign of Emperor Anastasius. These mosaics, frequently illustrating pastoral themes or religious motifs, offered insight into the city’s cultural and artistic traditions. The Mosaic Buildings, located adjacent to the rock-cut necropolis, present vibrant representations of nature, featuring meticulously drawn shepherds, flora, and fauna rendered in brilliant tesserae.

Islamic Period Graves

Dara contains burials from the Islamic period, in addition to Christian and Roman-era tombs. The graves, located mostly in the central area of the necropolis and surrounding the baldachin mausoleum on the hill to the east of the city, date from the 7th to the 14th century AD. Their presence illustrates the city’s subsequent religious transformations, as Islamic conquerors introduced new burial customs alongside the vestiges of prior traditions.